သီရိလကၤာ၊ ကယ္လ္နီယတကၠသိုလ္ ပို႕ခ်ခ်က္ အေျဖမ်ား

Comment on the works of Ven. BG in accordance with Mahavihara tradition

The PCs were brought by Ven. Mahinda in 3^rd century B.C to Sri Lanka and immediately translated into Sinhalese. Ven. BG translated them into Pali again in 5^th c AD. He said at the very beginning of Visuddhamagga (Vm) and his commentaries on four Nikāyas, he would follow Mahāvihāra tradition. Mahavihara tradition may be the opinions held by Theras of Mahavihara in Anuradapura and Rohana. But he violated Mahāvihāranaya on various occasions and he did not keep his confession. The contents of PCs are basically the words of Indian Buddhist scholars.

Even though the Vm was not a commentary it is the text in which many references to Pali cannon are found. When BG came to Sri Lanka Vimuttimagga have already been written by the Bhikkhus of Abhayagīri. The Vimuttimagga was translated into Chinese in 5^th century AD. The Chinese translation of Vimuttimagga is available, even in English now.

When we compare Vimuttimagga with Vm we can see that the Vm is nothing but the copy of Vimuttimagga. The name of chapters, the quotations taken from the canonical texts and the various topics of both books are the same. Therefore, there is no doubt about that ven. BG wrote Vm by copying the Vimuttimagga of the Abhiyagīri.

In the Vm the term Indariyattha is defined by quoting a grammatical formula from the Panini. As Adikaram pointed out this particular quotation is taken from the Panini grammar word by word. When BG wrote commentary of Ambbttha sutta there are various definitions based on that he gathered from Sanskrit texts. He would have studied Sanskrit before he came to Sri Lanka. Then he referred to Sankaya Philosophy when he commented Paticcasamuppada.

The Mahāvihāra used Pāli as the sacred language, but Abayagīri used both Pāli and sankrit languages. Since Sankrit became popular at Abayagīri their knowledge of Pāli was also better than that of Mahāvihāra. But BG would have studied Sanskrit and he had a lot of knowledge of Sankaya Philosophy and Mahayana tradition which flourished in southern India because he was a Brahman.

In his commentaries, we find the phrase 'Ekacce vandanti', which means some say. Dhammapala said that BG used the term 'Ekacce' to indicate the opinions of Abhayagiri. Abhayagiri had its own commentarial literature and historical record like Uttaraviharavamsatthakatha. He used Andaka Atthakatha which existed in Andaka padesa, India. Both Andaka and Uttra do not represent Mahavihara tradition.

The sources of the Pali commentaries are divided into four categories; sutta, suttanuloma, acariya and attanomati. The former has stronger authority than the latter. So the weakest authority of source is Attanomati. This Attanomati given by BG does not represent Mahavihara Naya. This is made evident from the fact that Mahāvihāra monks did not write any classics book in Pāli before the Ven.BG came to Sri Lanka. The only one book written by Mahāvihāra monks in Pāli is Dipāvamsa. Most of Pāli scholars agree that the Pāli language employed in Dipāvamsa is very bad.

The analysis of mediation found in the Vm does not represent Mahavihara tradition and they were quite different from the system of Pāli language. The BG followed the system that employed the Yogadassana of patanjali. BG has copied them from Yogadassana. Therefore the Vm is not based on Mahāvihāra tradition. It is pointed out by the various scholars that the ven.BG was influenced by various systems of Indian philosophy. In this way, we should not come to the conclusion that Ven. BG always followed the Mahāvihāra tradition. (573 words)

Did BG always follow the Mahavihara Tradition in writing the various commentaries?

The PCs were brought by Ven.Mahinda in the 3^rd century B.C. to Sri Lanka and they were immediately translated into Sinhalese. Sanhala A were translated in to Pali by the commentators.BG said that following the Mahavihara tradition he would write PCs in almost all of his commentaries. Even though the commentators had said that they would follow Mahavihara Naya, they violated Mahavihara Naya on various occasions.

(1) At the very beginning of commentxries of 4 Nikayas, BG said that he wrote these commentaries by keeping VS as a sense as center.In the texts he quite often refered to the VS. When he came to SL, the Bhikkhus of Abhayagiriya have already been written a book namely Vimuttimagga (VM). When we compare VM with VS, we can see that VS is nothing but the copy of VM. Both books are nearly the same, because the name of chapters, the quotations taken from the canonical texts and various details given on collected topics are same. Therefore, there is no doubt that BG wrote VS by copying the VM.

(2) With reference to the analysis of meditation found in VS, BG followed the system that employed the Yogadavs'ana of Patanjali. He has copied them from Yogadavs'ana. So, VS is not based on Mahavihara tradition.

(3) The various scholars pointed out that BG was influenced by Indian system of philosophy.

(4) In VS, the term Indariyakatha is defined by quoting a grammatical formula from Panini. Adikaran pointed out that this particular quotation is taken from the Panini grammar word by word.

(5) There are various definitions given by BG. The term Brahmana is defined in various discourses as one who recites Mantra. At one place, he said that Brahmana is one who tries to destroy unwholesome activities, Papa.

(6) In Nanadassanavisuddhi of VS, it is said that Avijja is referred to the very beginning of existence. In this case, it is first cause. Every thing comes out from the Avijja. So, he must have some knowledge of Sankaya philosophy. These are not definitely going to formulate Mahavihara tradition. So, BG and other commentator also deviated on various occasions from Mahavihara tradition.

(7) In the commentaries, there are particular terms: one is Bhanaka and another is Porana. In Adikaram's book, Bhanaka and Porana sometimes contradict to one another.

For example, DN said that a text belongs to the Abhidhammapitaka but MN said that it belongs to the Suttapitaka. These two traditions were contradictory in particular points. Therefore, what we see in the conmemtaries under the Bhanaka and Porana is not Mahaviharanaya.

(8) There are particular phrases which refer to the scholars who lived in Sri Lanka or India.In VS, we find the phrase ''Ekacce vadanti'' which means some say.Dhammapala says that BG used the term ''Ekacce'' to indicate Ven-Upatissa who wrotes VM and lived in Abhayagiriya.

(9) In Samantapasadika, the sources of the Pali commentaries are divided into four categories by BG himself. They are: Sutta, Suttanuloma, Acariyavada and Attanomati. The former has stronger authority than the later. So, the weakest authority of source is Attanomati. This Attanomati does not represent Mahaviharanaya. That is because he wrote commentaries by following other opinions. So, we should not come to the conclusion that BG always follows the Mahavihara tradition. Words -554

The relationship between Pali commentaries and Mahavihara tradition

The PCs were brought by ven. Mahinda in 3^rd century B.C to Sri Lanka and immediately they were translated into Sinhalese. So the PC disappeared and Sinhaless C came into existent. In the commentaries ven.BG said that he would write PC elucidating the decision of Mahāvihāra. In Vm he said at the very beginning he would follow Mahāvihāra tradition. This statement is found at the very beginning in almost all of his commentaries. Even though the commentors had said that they would follow Mahāvihāra Naya, they violated Mahāvihāranaya on various occasions. They have not kept their confession.

What is found in the commentaries are what the Indian Buddhists believed, not Sri Lanka tradition. We have no doubt about that the ideas of Sinhaless monks would have been kept in the PC. But the contents of PC are basically the words of Indian Buddhist scholars.

Vm is not a commentary. It is independent work written by the Ven. BG. At the very beginning of the commentaries on four Nikāyas, Ven. BG said that keeping Vm as a sense, as center, he wrote these commentaries. In the texts he quite often referred to the Vm. Even though the Vm was not a commentary it is the text which was referred in Pāli cannon. When BG came to Sri Lanka a book under the name of Vimuttimagga have already been written by the Bhikkhus of Abhayagīri. The Vimuttimagga was translated into Chinese in 5^th century A. D. It was quite popular not only in Sri Lanka but also in other Buddhist countries. During this period BG's Samantapāsādīkā also translated into Chinese.

It is believed that the Vimuttimagga was translated into Chinese before the Samantapāsādīkā. The Chinese translation of Vimuttimagga is available, even in English now. When we compare Vimuttimagga with Vm we can see that the Vm is nothing but the copy of Vimuttimagga. The subject matter of both books are nearly the same, because the name of chapters, the quotations taken from the canonical texts and the various details given on collected topics are the same.

Therefore, there is no doubt about that ven. BG wrote Vm by copying the Vimuttimagga of the Abhiyagīri. The Mahāvihāra used Pāli as the sacred language, but Abayagīri uses both Pāli and sankrit languages. Since the learning of Sankrit became popular at Abayagīri their knowledge of Pāli was also better than that of Mahāvihāra.

This is made evident from the fact that Mahāvihāra monks did not write any classics book in Pāli before the Ven.BG came to Sri Lanka. The only one book written by Mahāvihāra monks in Pāli is Dipāvamsa. Most of Pāli scholars agree that the Pāli language employed in Dipāvamsa is very bad. After BG came to Sri Lanka Mahāvihara would have requested him to write a book in better Pāli equivalent to Abayagīri. The Mahāvihāra monks have given prominent to Sinhala language not to the Pāli language. Their knowledge of Pāli language was not so good. Abayagīri gives prominent both Pāli and Sanskrit.

The analysis of mediation found in the Vm does not represent Buddhist mediation and they were quite different from the system of Pāli language. The BG followed the system that employed the Yogadasana of patanjali. The ven. BG has copied them from Yogadasana. Therefore the Vm is not based on Mahāvihāra tradition. It is pointed out by the various scholars that the ven.BG was influenced by various Indian system of philosophy. In this way, we should not come the conclusion that ven. BG always follow the Mahāvihāra tradition. (580 words) 2.5.2006

The Mahavihara Tradition and Pali Commentaries (9. 5. 06)

According to Mahavamsa, Ven. BG was a Brahman, born in Buddhagaya. Buddhagosuppti also confirms the opinion of the Mahavamsa. At the end of Vm, it is said that the Ven. BG was born in a place called Morandacetaka.. As a Brahman he would have studied Sanskrit and had a lot of knowledge of Mahayana tradition which flourished in southern India.

Even though Ven.BG said that he would follow the Mahavihara tradition to translate the commentaries. In the Vm the term Indariyatha is defined by quoting a grammatical formula from the Panini. As Adikaram pointed out this particular quotation is taken from the Panini grammar word by word. When wrote commentary on the Ambbttha sutta of DN Ven. BG said that all Vedas are silent on this particular point. There are various definitions given by Ven. BG depending on that he gathered from Sanskrit texts.

The term Brahmana is defined in various discourse as one who recites Mantra. At one place he further said Brahmana is one who tries to eradicate unwholesome activities, Papa. He referred to Sankaya Philosophy which comments on Paticcasamuppada. The most longest and scholarly position of the Paticcasamuppada is found in his Vm, which is called Nanadassanavisuddhi. Avijja is referred to the very beginning of existence. In this case, it is the first cause. Every thing comes out from the Avijja. This shows that Ven. BG must have some knowledge of Sankaya philosophy. He gave account of Brahmanic theory of the origin of four casts. The Brahmans used to proclaim that they were originated from the mouth of the Brahman. This theory is first articulated in the ten chapter of Veda.

These are not definitely going to formulate Mahavihara tradition. So, Ven BG and other commentators also deviated on various occasions from the Mahavihara tradition. In the commentaries there are particular terms; one is Bhanaka and the other is Porana. In Adikaram's book, bhanaka and Porana sometimes contradict to one another. For example, DN opinion that a text belongs to the Abhidhamma pitaka but MN said that it belongs to the suttapitaka. These two traditions were contradictory in particular points. Therefore, what we see in the commentaries under the banaka and porana is not Mahaviharanaya. There are particular phrased which refers to the scholars who lived either in SL or in India. In Vm, we find the phrase'Ekacce vandanti', which means some say. Dhammapala says that the ven BG used the term 'Ekacce' to indicate the Ven. Upatissa who wrote Vimuttimagga and lived in Abhayagiri.

Abhayagiri had its own commentarial literature and historical record also like Uttaraviharavamsatthakatha. There is another commentary that was used by Ven. BG is Andaka Atthakatha which existed in Andaka padesa, India. Both Andaka and Uttra do not represent Mahavihara tradition. The sources of the Pali commentaries are divided into four categories by Ven. BG himself in the Samantapasadika. They are; sutta, suttanuloma, acariya and attanomati. The former has stronger authority than the latter. So the weakest authority of source is Attanomati.

This Attanomati given by BG does not represent Mahavihara Naya. That is because he wrote commentaries by following other opinions. Mahavihara tradition may be the opinion held by Theras of Mahavihara in Anuradapura. Some teachers lived in remote area of Anuradapura. BG might go to Rohana during his stay in SL because it was better than Mahavihara for Buddhist education. Two important places mentioned in commentaries are Sitalapabbata and Tissamahagama. BG also mentioned in his commentaries that two Indian monks, Visapa and Pitimala, who came to SL to study Buddhism and Pali had left Anuradhapura for Rohana.

The Sources of Theravada Tradition (23/4/06)

According to the commentaries, the commentarial tradition goes back to the time of the Buddha. In the discourses the Buddha said that he preached the Dhamma in the form of Sutta, Geya, etc. which is called Navangasatthusāsana. Here we can find two literal styles: Veyakarana and Jātaka which are representative of the commentarial tradition. This is how the Buddha preached the Dhamma.

Veyākarana is the style of analytical exposition. Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta is exposition of Four Noble Truths. Brahmajāla Sutta is the exposition of the views that existed during the time of the Buddha. Therefore, Veyākarana has direct connection to the commentarial Tradition.

Similarly the Jātakas also directly connect to the commentarial tradition. When we examine the Jātaka commentary the Jātaka stanzās are incorporated in it. The two books are consistent. The Jātaka stories are also as old as the Jātaka stanzas. There is no possibility for the Jātaka stanzas to exist alone. The Jātaka stanzas become meaningful due to the stories. Therefore the Jātaka stories go back to the time of the Buddha.

Vinaya pitaka

When we examine the Tipitaka, the characteristic of the commentarial tradition are found. The Vinayapitaka has three sections and five texts. The three sections are (1)Vibanga (2) Kandaka and (3) Parivāra. The five texts are (1)Pārajikapāli (2)Pācittiyapāli (3) Mahāvaggapāli (4)Cūlavaggapāli and (5)Parivārapali. In addition to them, Bhikkupātimokkha and Bhikkunipātimokkha can be found in the majority of Buddhist schools. Therefore, some scholars pointed out the opinion that the Vibanga section first had Bhikkhupatimokkha and and Bhikkunipātimokkha, not Pārajikapāli and Pācittiyapāli. If we examine the Pārajika and Pācittiyapāli we can clearly see that these two texts are nothing but commentaries. Pārajika pāli and pācittiya pāli has various details in addition to the vinaya rules.

According to the Panccasatikakkhandaka of cullavaggaPāli, six factors are added to the Pārajikapāli and pācittiyapāli. Therefore the Pārajika and pācittiya pāli become the commentary on the vinaya rules. There is a very important section which is called Padabājaniya for each of the vinaya rules in the Pārajika and Pācittiyapāli. Here Padabājaniya means analysis of words in traditional commentary. If we take example from Sumingalavilāsinī we can see that ven.BG analysised the words which contains in the discourses. Padabājaniya is nothing but commentary on the vinaya rules. So the Theravada Tradition believes that the Padabājaniya was introduced by the Buddha himself. If so, the first commentator of Theravada tradition is the Buddha himself, not Ven. BG.

There is a separate term in the commentaries called Pakinnaka Desanā, the sermons of the Buddha uttered in various places. In addition to the major sermon the Buddha gave an additional sermon also as appendix. That is how the commentaries came into existence. Kandaka rules support to the main vinaya rules erected by the Buddha for the Bhikkus and Bhikkunis. So, Kandaka also take the form of commentary. The Parivāra has various rules and the conmments of Vibanga and Kandaka. These comments are given in the form of dialouge, questions and answer form. What is discussed in the Vibanga and Kandaka in details is summarized in the Parivāra. The present vinaya Pitaka is a mass of commentaries written on the Vinaya rules.

Ven.BG realized this and he came forward with a new definition of Vinayapitaka in the Sammatapāsadīka, Atthasālinī and Sumangalavilāsinī. According to Theravada Tradition Vinayapitaka have five texts. But the Ven.BG asked what the Vinayapitaka is and then he himself defined it Vinayapitaka is Pātimokkha, two Vibanga, two Kandaka, 16 parivara. But the Theravada tradition does not accept Bhikkupātimokkha and BhikuniPātimokkha as the part of Vinayapitaka. The ven.BG said the Bhikkhupātimokkha and Bhikkhunipātimokkha should be included in the Vinaya Pitaka. He suggested without these texts the Vinayapitaka is not complete with the five texts as accepted in the Theravāda tradition. This problem does not arise in the Vinayapitaka of others tradition because the very first two texts in their tradition are BK and BKN. This is a serious problem in Theravada tradition.

Suttanta pitaka

When we examine the Suttapitaka it is quite obvious there are expositions to the Pāli commentaries. The Buddha begins the Dhammackkapavatana sutta with commentarial view. It is said that at the very beginning the Bhikkhus should avoid the two extremes, self-indulgence and self-mortification, and practice Mijjimapatipadā. Then he explained what middle path is. And he himself answered Middle Path is the Noble Eight folds itself. In this case we can see how commentary was also erected on very first sermon itself. The Buddha came forward with commentarial remark. This type of remark is found in most of the discourses. In the first part of vammika Sutta, Buddha gave an outline for the discourse. In the next part, he explained what they are. Here the text and commentary are combined in the Vammika Sutta.

In the Dhammapada there are Vaggas such as Buddha vagga, Bhikkhu vagga, etc. Vaggas are the particular word defined in various ways. For example, who is the Buddha? The meaning of Buddha is explained in various stanzas of that vagga. Bhikkhu is also defined and analyzed in Bhikkhu vagga. Another example is the Vattaka Sutta found in the Sutta Nipāta also. For example, who is the teacher? The person who teaches us is a teacher. And who is marchant? The person who sales goods is marchant. This definition is nothing but a commentary. There is Udāna uttered by the Buddha. If we don't know this context as reported in section we cannot understand. The Udāna gets its meaning in the context of prose.

Niddesa Pāli has two parts, Mahāniddesa and Cūlaniddesa. Mahāniddesa is a commentary written on Attakavagga of the Suttanipāta. Cūlaniddesa is a commentary written on the Parāyanavagga of Suttanipāta. They are as older as the collections of discourses: DN, SN, AN, etc. The discourse of Attakavagga was known as Attakavagga during the time of the Buddha. Parāyanavagga was also Parāyanavagga.

The first vagga of DN is called Sīlankhandhavagga. It has 13 discourses but during the time of the Buddha no one knew Sīlakkhandavagga. Buddhism has rich conceptual thinking because in Attakavagga there is no mention of Middle Path, Noble Eightfold Path, and Dependent Origination. When the time went on these two sections would not have been properly understood. That is because they became the victim of conceptual Buddhism. Therefore, the elders decided to write commentary on the Attakavagga and Parāyana.

The only difference is that the Niddesa dose not has grammatical terminology. But in the Niddesa the terms are explained in their linguistic concern even though grammar is not known. For example, in Niddesa the word Iti (Itītipadasandi) is used to combine words. This particular sentence cannot be attributed to the Buddha because in the discourse this type of sentence does not occur. The Niddesa says that Evamti Upamā. Here the word Evam is mainly used to bring forward at the assembly. The proper grammar has been used in Niddesa. Therefore Niddesa is commentary like Sumangalavilāsinī.

Abhidhamma pitaka

When we come to the Abhidhamma the Buddha's teachings which are found in the discourses are presented in different way in the Abhidhammapitaka. Therefore the entire Abhidhammapitaka can be considered as commentary on the Buddha teaching recorded in the discourses. The very first book of Abhidhammapitaka is Dhammasinganī which first gives the topic of Abhidhamma. The entire detail topics given in the Dhammasangani are discourses. The topics are called Abhidhamma Mātikā. It is believed that this Mātikā was kept by the Buddha himself. Ven. Moggaliputtatissa wrote Kathāvatthu in 3^rd century B.C on the topic which is handed down by the Buddha himself.

There is a section which is called Atthuddāra. So, what is given first as topic is discussed in detail in the Dhammasangani itself. And also this topic is further discussed in other text of Abhidhamma. In this way, Abhidhamma is a commentary in early Buddhism. There are two forms of methodology in the Abhidhammapitaka. First the topic which is enumerated discourses is called Suttantabājaniya. Second they are counted using Abhidhamma methodology is called Abhidhammabājanīya.

This Abhidhamma methodology has two distinctive characters. One is called Nipuggala, not mentioned of any person in the Abhidhammic analysis. The other is called Nipariyāya which explain what is first given in the Suttantabājaniya. Technical terms are used in the discourses to understand for various groups of people according to their knowledge. So, when we take all these into consideration, the entire Abhidhammapitaka played the role of a longest commentary in early Buddhism. That is the commentarial tradition which goes back to the time of the Buddha in Abhidhama.

Theravada Sources

There are three Pali texts between the Pali canon and commentarial literature. They are Nettipakarana, Petakopadesa and Milindapanha. They are called pre-commentarial and post-pali literature. Both Nettipakarana and Petakopadesa are found in a particular class. In Sri lankan tradition, none of these is considered as canon. But in Burmese tradition, all of these pretexts are Pali canons. According to Burmese tradition, the Kuddaka Nikaya consists of 19 texts. According to the Saddhammaratanakara( one of Sri lankan text), even in the Srilankan tradition, Nettipakarana is a Pali canon.

Both of Nittipakarana and Petakopadesa dealt with the same methodology sometime using even the same word. Which book was written first is not very clear. Some scholars think Nittipakarana was written first but some think it was later. Petakopadesa have been corrected in the Nittipakarana. The citations in the Petkopadesa are full of mistake although these are directly corrected in Nittipakarana. According to Jonward, the theravāda has the problem of interpretation. The purpose of written N and P was to address these problems. Therefore, the N and P was followed a system different from the Pāli commentaries. According to Ven Nānamoli, N and P give guide lines to understand Pāli Tipitaka as a whole not piece by piece as commentaries provided

Both Nettipakarana and Petakopadesa were written by Ven Mahakaccana, one of the 80 great disciples. In Theravada tradition, there are two grammatical schools; the Kaccayana and Moggallãna. The authorship of Kaccayana is said to be Ven Mahakaccãna who lived during the time of Buddha. But at the time of the Buddha, the knowledge of grammar was not developed. So this statement is doubtful. There is a history of pali literature called Ganthavansa written in Pali in Burma. Three grammatical texts are attributed to Ven Mahakaccayana. Those are Mahanirutti, Culanirutti and Kaccayana.

It is an important historical point. There was a system of interpretation and analysis of dhamma which had developed during the time of Buddha. Ven Mahakaccãna lived in a remote area called Avanti which was far from the capital city of Magada, Rajagaha and Sãvatthi etc. There he would have developed his own system to teach his pupils.

According to 1^st chapter of AN, Ven Mahakaccayana is one of the prominent Maximizers.(expander of what is said in short). In MN, we can see Madhupindika sutta, in which the Buddha preached to the monks in short and went back into His room. The monks approached to Ven Mahakaccãna and asked him. He gave a detail account of the discourse. Then the monks went again to the Buddha and inform what Ven Mahakaccayana explained. The Buddha said that it was true. Therefore the Theravada tradition thought that the first grammarian of pali language is Ven Mahakaccayana. Out of these two texts, the Petakopadesa was compiled first.

There are two characteristics are found in Nettipakarana. The first one is that the Netti is the analysis of the meaning of 9 fold division (Navangatthassa vannana). The 9 fold are sutta, geya, veyakarana, etc. The second one is that the Netti is the analysis of the entire teaching of Buddha (Pariyattisasanassa attha vannana). In both Netti and Petako, there is only the analysis of sutta pitaka, not that either of Vinaya or of Abhidhamma.

There are three major topics in these two texts; Panca naya( five ways), Solasahãra(16 hãra), atthãrasa mulapada ( 18 fundamental terms). These 18 fundamental terms deal with wholesome and unwholesome; 9 wholesome and 9 unwholesome. Abhidhamma starts with Katamedhammã kusalã, Katamedhammã Akusalã, Katamedhammã Abyãkatã. . Therefore some scholars think that both Netti and Petako came into existence before the Vinaya and Abhidhamma Pitaka. (600 words)

How did the Theravada respond to the Puggalavada and the Sarvastivada regarding the Dhamma?

After the second Buddhist council, there were different interpretations and ways how to practice Dhamma among Buddhist monks. According to historical accounts, the three traditions based on the Buddha’s teachings are Theravada, Puggalavada and Sarvastivada. They all have their own opinions or views of early Buddhism.

When Theravada analyzes the five aggregates into the ultimate things such as 89 types of consciousness (Citta), 52 mental factors (Cetasika), and 28 forms of matter (Rupa), there is no beings that we call ‘I, he, she, or it. All these ultimate things are impermanent (anicca) and perish after arising. There is no soul (Atta). Therefore, Theravada rejects the existence of individual (Puggala).

To respond Theravada, Ven. Vasiputtara put forward with the notion of person, Puggala. The main theory of puggalavada is that there is an entity called Puggala separate from the five aggregates. According to their view, a person (Puggala) is responsible to what he does until the realization of Nibbana.

They said that ‘if there is no person, who takes the responsibilities good or bad and goes to the next life?’ To prove the theory of Kamma, rebirth, memory, the spiritual development, etc, Puggalavada says that there must be an entity. Even though the Buddha said that there are four kinds of persons (Puggala) in AN, it does not refer to the ultimate things. He used the conventional things to explain his teachings. Theravada criticizes that the concept of Puggala favors the Hindu concept of soul. To respond the ideology of Puggala, Kathavatthu was written by Ven. Moggaliputta during the time of King Asoka.

Although Sarvastivada refuses the concept of Puggala, There are some differences betweem Sarvastivada and Theravada concerning the theory of moment which is based on early Buddhism. Sarvastivada says that the absolute phenomena exist at all times- past, present and future. Hence, they are called Sarvastivada.

They put forward the following arguments against Theravada. (1) Due to the actions done in the past, the results exist in the present and will appear in the future. (2) The memory is not possible without the past existence. (3) Even in our experiences, we lived in the past, lives in the present and will live in the future continuously. (4) By the power of Pubbenivasanussatinana, Arahants can see the past and future of beings. (5) There are ordinary people who can recall the past life. Based on these arguments, they say that the Dhamma exists in the past, present and future.

To respond the Sarvastivada, the Theravada says that there is no possibility to exist in the three tenses without any changes. The Theravada points out a particular discourse of SN. In this sutta, the Buddha accepted three tenses but there is no continuation of past, present and future. Therefore, the existence of three tenses is the wrong notion of Sarvastivada. Moreover, they say that it is nominal behind the absolute phenomena. Theravada says that there is no such existence. If there is something behind phenomena, it is nothing but the soul which is rejected by the Theravada.

According to Theravada, all conditioned things undergo the duration of three moments: moment of arising (uppada), moment of existence (thiti) and moment of destruction (bhanga). All conditioned things appear and perish one moment after another. They exist only in the present. Based on these accounts, Theravada totally rejects Puggalavada and Sarvastivada. (557 words)

Historical Beginning of the Theravada Buddhism

The term Theravada is composed of two parts: Thera- elder + Vada- tradition or theory meaning “the tradition of the elder. Early Buddhism means the early collection and classification of the facts and teachings of the 4 Nikayas while the latter collection, classification and interpretation of the Dhamma and Vinaya are called the Theravada Buddhism. It is commonly seen as the same but there is, in fact, a distinction between Theravada and Early Buddhism.

Now the distinctive matter between them can be traced. In the 6^th century BC, the discourses were not collected. At that time The Buddha pointed out that the leader for the Buddha Sasana would be just the Dhamma and Vinaya as the Teacher. After the demise of the Buddha, at the 1st Buddhist Council, they started collecting the Buddha’s teachings where the Elders involvement started collecting four Nikayas namely Digha Nikaya– 34 Sutra, Majjhima Nikaya – 150 Sutra, Samyuttanikaya – 7000 Sutra and Anguttara Nikaya – 9000 Sutra. These four Nikayas are commonly called the early Buddhism and agreed by all groups.

Traditionally, at the 1^st Buddhist Council, there were 500 Arahants and 700 Arahants at the second. At these two councils, only sutta and vinaya were collected except Abhidhamma. It is believed to be the collection of the Theras. During the 1^st Buddhist Council – each Vinaya rule was added with 7 fold details: Vatthu, Nindana, Puggala, Pannatti, Anuppannatti, Apatti and Anapatti. It is sure that the Vinaya of early Buddhism was about 100 pages. Later it became 5 texts totaling 10,000 pages. Some names of King such as Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Udayibhaddha as well as Asoka in the suttas are added by the Theras.

There is another way of differentiating Theravada and Early Buddhism. Early Buddhism consists of the main rules (vinaya) and 95% of the main discourses (4 nikaya). However, latter the collection and Interpretation of the Dhamma and Vinaya are called the Theravada Buddhism. Hence in between the 2^nd and 3^rd council there is a differentiation of interpretation of Vinaya and Dhamma by Sangha. As a result the original Sangha split into Theravada and Mahasanghika. In the subsequent period these two schools again spilt into 18 schools: 11 sects from Theravada and 7 sects from Mahasanghika.

The difference in the schools laid in their interpretations of the discourses. According to different individual given to different occasions and in different places the Buddha also talked in different ways in different discourses. In Bahuvedaniya Sutta (Madhyamika) the Buddha gave a statement: Pariyayadesito Kho Maya Ananda dhammo – (this dhamma can be interpreted in different ways according to conditions). Moreover, Abhidhamma existed in the 3^rd council due to the contribution of the Theras. Without the Abhidhamma philosophy contribution there will be no proper interpretation of the Sutta and Vinaya. Therefore it is an important contribution of Theras to Theravada Tradition.

The Theravada abstract from the main text and make new discourses called Dharmasutra consists only of the list of doctrines with no place, time, speaker, similes. Then the Theravada using some methodological ways interpreted them systematically for example, Rupa: ruppatiti rupam or vedana – vediyatiti vedana. Early Buddhism could not be interpreted systematically. With the help of the Theravada, these discourses were systematically interpreted. In all, early Buddhism consists of the original teachings of the Buddha while Theravada Buddhism is added new elements to Vinaya and dhamma. Word- 555

Explain the relationship among the early Buddhism, Theravada tradition and Vibhajjavada.

Early Buddhism means the early collection and classification of Buddha’steachings (Four Nikayas). The later collection, classification and interpretation of the Dhamma and Vinaya are called Theravada Buddhism. It is commonly seen as the same but there is a distinction between Theravada and Early Buddhism. The four Nikayas are commonly called as Early Buddhism by all groups. Then the Buddha’s teachings became five Nikayas.

During the 1^st Buddhist Council, each Vinaya was added with seven elements- Vatthu, Nidana, Puggala, Pannatti, Anuppannatti, Apatti and Anapatti. Therefore, we can say that Theravada is the expansion of Early Buddhism. Early Buddhism consists of the main rules (vinaya) and 95% of the main discourses (Four Nikayas). However, later collection and Interpretation of the Dhamma and Vinaya are called the Theravada Buddhism. Hence between the 2^nd and 3^rd council there is a differentiation of interpretation of Vinaya and Dhamma by Sangha. As a result the original Sangha split into Theravada and Mahasanghika.

Moreover, Abhidhamma existed in the 3^rd council due to the contribution of the Theras. Without the Abhidhamma philosophy there would be no proper interpretation of the Sutta and Vinaya. Therefore it is an important contribution of the elder to Theravada Tradition.

Then the Theravada using some methodological ways interpreted them systematically for example, Rupa - ruppatiti rupam or vedana – vediyatiti vedana. Early Buddhism could not be interpreted systematically. With the help of the Theravada, these discourses were systematically interpreted. Early Buddhism consists of Buddha’s original teachings while Theravada Buddhism is added new elements to Vinaya and dhamma.

The Vibhajjavada is indentified as Theravada in the analysis of individual being into the five aggregates. Therefore, the canonical evidence comes to the conclusion the words Vibhajjavada and Theravada are the same in early Buddhism. In the Subba sutta of MN, Subha asked the Buddha two questions. To answer him the Buddha said that ‘He could not give him categorical answer and he was Vibhajjavadi, not Ekamsavadi.

In the Catukka Nipata of A.N, there are four kinds of questions to give answers. They express the relationship between Theravada and Vibajjavada. They are: (1) Panho ekamsavyakaraniyo – A question which should be answered categorically; (2) Panho vibhajjavyakaraniyo – A question which should be answered analytically; (3) Panho patipucchavyakaraniyo – A question which should be replied with a counter question: (4) Panho thapaniyavyakaraniyo – A question which should be set aside without giving any answer.

We cannot consider Buddhism as Vibhajjavada because the Buddha replied question in four ways mentioned above. All questions and answers are equally valid. They are not superior to others. In early Buddhism, there are two aspects which are called ‘Analysis and Synthesis’. These two aspects are called in the Abhidhamma as Bheda and Sangaha. The Paticcasamuppada is the major figure of Synthesis. It is more important than Analysis in early Buddhism. The Khanda, Ayatana, Dhatu and Dhamma divisions represent the analytical aspect of Buddhism. In this sense, Theravada may have been identified as Vibhajjavada.

The term V was introduced to the Theravada tradition in the 3^rd Buddhist council. In Samantapasadika, Mahavamsa, and Atthasalini it is said that the king Asoka purified the Sasana with the help of Ven. Moggaliputta asking a question such as ‘What was the perfectly Enlightened One(Kim vadi Sammasambuddho).He expelled 6000 heretics who answered that the Buddha was Sassatavadi and accepted those who answered that the Buddha was Vibhajjavadi.

In conclusion, Theravada is derived from Early Buddhism. V is a new term to express the meaning of Theravada. They all are nearly the same. This tradition spread to other countries such as Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. (592 words)

History of Theravāda Vinaya

Traditionally Buddhist literature consists of three baskets: Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma. Of them, Vinaya is the disciplinary code for self training laid down by the Buddha for monks and nuns to observe. It plays a vital role in Theravadins’ monastic way of life. The Vinaya pitaka consists of five texts under three main sections: Suttavibhanga- parajika and pacittitya; Khandaka- Mahavagga and culavagga; Parivara- Parivara which is the appendix to the Vinaya. In suttavibhanga there are 220 rules under the 7 groups of offences: Four parajika, Thirteen sanghadisesa, Two aniyata, Thirty nissaggiya, Ninety two pacittaya, four pātidesaniya and Seventy five sekkiya.

Unless the Vinaya is protected as a whole, the dispensation will disappear. Thus, all monks should accept all the rules formulated by the Buddha in spite of being heavy or light.

According to Dr Oliver, Theravada is nothing but Vinaya carried by the elder. I totally support his statement through Buddhist Councils. The first Buddhist Council was held because Subaddha disparaged the Buddha’s teachings, especially Vinaya on the seventh day after the Buddha’s demise. At that council, the elders have considered Vinaya as a very important aspect of Buddhism. They wanted to make clear division between Dhamma and Vinaya and protect the disciplines promulgated by the Buddha. They, thus, decided to recite first Vinaya as they thought Vinaya is the lifespan of the Buddhist dispensation- Vinayo nama sasanassa āyu.

From the Buddha’s time up to the 2^nd Buddhist council, there was no division in Buddhist dispensation. By examining the second Buddhist council we can know that the Theravadins wanted to purify the real Buddhism in accordance with the exact Vinaya rules. There were some monks known as Vajiputtaka who preached and practiced ten unlawful matters not suitable to monks. Theravadins believed that if they allow them Buddhism will not exist for a long time. We can think that the second Buddhist council was nothing but the protection of Buddhist Vinaya. If someone had any doubt or misinterpretation of Vinaya, the Elder expelled him from the Theravadins.

Before the third council, some theravadins did not perform any Kamma with those who entered the Order without observing the rules. Mahavihara monks, Theravadins, did not want to mix with Abhayagiri monks because they had different disciplines to be observed.

Theravadins were able to keep early Buddhism in the pure form. Thus, the tripitakas contain the Buddha’s teachings, with regard to the doctrine and the disciplinary rules formulated for the good behavior of monks. If any one of the four parajikas is violated, at once one becomes layman, expelled from the sañgha. Both parajika and sanghadisesa are considered as garukapatti, heavy offence and the rest are lahukapatti-light offences. Minor changes of Vinaya had taken place from time to time but were not officially recognized among the members of the Theravadins. In fact, Vinaya helps monks to develop greater spirituality.

A monk without Vinaya disciplines is not worthy of receiving any offerings and looks like laypeople. There is no difference between monk and layman. Theravadins believe that no one can achieve any progress of higher knowledge without observing rules. A monk basically has to establish well the disciplinary rules to develop concentration and insight which lead to Nibbana.

One who observes Vinaya well can practice and realize well Dhamma. Vinaya is extremely beneficial to both monks and their donors for their liberation. Theravadins, therefore, give prominence to Vinaya than Dhamma. Word-565

Paticcasamuppāda

The Buddha himself directly preached the discourse of Paticcasamuppada, Dependent Origination, in Nidānasamyutta to the bhikhus, to expel the wrong views of Atta: Sakkaya Ditthi, Sassataditthi, Ucchedaditthi.

P is discussed in detail in the Mahāpadana sutta and Mahānidana sutta of DN. In the Sammāditthi sutta of MN also the 12 fold factors of P are explained in detail. Ven. Sāriputta addressed to the bhikkhus that one has arrived at the true Dhamma when one understands these factors, their origin, their cessation and the way leading to the cessation.

Similarly, there are many discourse on P in the AN and the KN. The Paccayakāra of the Patthana in Abhidhamma Pitaka,is the 24 relationship between cause and effect. In fact, the real meaning of Paticcasamuppada cannot be understood without knowledge of Abhidhamma. The Pali cannons are very effective as the authorship of the Buddha. Therefore, the Theravada tradition believes that P is the Buddha’ś teaching, not the disciples’.

The teaching of Paticcasamuppada can be seen everywhere in the universe. In the Cakkavatti sutta of DN, the Buddha explained social problems how they happen. In SN, the Buddha discussed how a plant comes from seed. If the three causes cannot come together, the plant cannot arise. How the world comes and end, as its cause and effect, is explained by the Buddha in Sattasūriya sutta of AN.

The Law of Dependent Origination is a profound and realistic way of understanding the universe. The fact that everything is nothing more than a set of relation is consistent with the modern scientific view of the material world. Understanding the law of cause and effect or Kamma and its result, we must avoid from evil deeds, do good deeds and purify the mind.

There are twelve factors in P. They are: Avijjā, Sankhāra, Vinnana, Nāmarūpa, Salāyatana, Phassa, Vedanā, Tanhā, Upadāna, Bhava, Jāti and Jarāmarana. Dependent on the ignorance (Avijja), there arise volitional actions (Sankhara) and so on. In this way, they account for the continuity of existence of beings, birth after birth. This is the arising of aggregate of sufferings. These 12 factors are divided into three tenses. The first two factors belong to the past tense and the last two belong to the future tense. The rest, 8 factors, are involved in the present tense.

There are four layers (Catusankhepa) due to three junctions (Sandhis), among 12 factors. The second junction between Vedanā and Tanhā is more important than the other two. All factors from Avijjā to Vedanā are common to Arahant and all sentient beings.

The past cause gave rise to the present effect; similarly, the present cause will give rise to the future effect. BG described in Vm that the present and future effects are Vinnana, Nāmarāpa, Salāyatana, Phassa and Vedanā. When each effect is analyzed and aggregated, they are the same as five aggregates (Pancakkhandha). Therefore, the two factors, Jati and Jaramarana, are included in P, not out of the circle. The past and present causes have five factors altogether, Avijja, sankhara, tanha, upadana and bhava. In fact, they are the same in member and number.

The Buddha explained the Paticcasamuppada for rejecting permanent soul and Creator or God. According to Paticcasamuppada, everything has its causes. The process can be ceased if the formula is taken in reverse order. Through the complete cessation of Avijjā, Sankhāra cease. Therefore, one can be free from the round of rebirth through the eradication of Avijja. (570 words)

ဗုဒၶဘာသာပညာေရးႏွင့္ ဆက္ဆံေရး

The threefold training is a basic teaching in Buddhism. To what extent that Buddhist theory of education finds a place in it.

Under the word of Holy life, the Buddha introduced what he has discovered to the Indian society. If we follow what He has preached to Alavaka, this holy life could be understood. Alavaka asked him “what sort of life is the highest?” The answer is that “life guided by wisdom is the highest”.

This statement is not only an answer to Alavaka but also an answer to the controversy found in Indian society resulting from various interpretations given to the four ideas. The explanation regarding ‘life guided by wisdom’ is found in the four stages of Magganana. One can attain the four Maggas by following the Noble Eightfold Path. This is also based on the threefold division of Sila, Samadhi and Panna. Then this division is explained in detail.

The threefold higher training is essential in Buddhism. They are silasikkha; the higher training of morality; Samadhisikkha; the higher training of concentration; and Pannasikkha; the higher training of wisdom. The purpose of the threefold training is to eradicate all defilements which are the root cause of all sufferings, realize Nibbana and enjoy eternal peace and happiness.

These three higher trainings will have to be trained step by step. If we have no moral principle, we can’t get any higher concentration or any wisdom. For instance, laymen have to follow five precepts basically and Buddhist monks have to follow the discipline of Vinaya Codes respectively.

And a typical progressive talk starts from charity (Dana), to morality (Sila), to heavenly stages (Sagga), to renunciation (Nekkhamma), and finally to the Four Noble Truths that embody the liberation from all form of suffering. Buddhism advocates an ideal of moral perfection as its ultimate goal.

Moral perfection can be attained when the unwholesome psychological roots of human behavior, namely, greed, hatred and delusion are eradicated. They are described as unwholesome roots (Akusalamula) because people are motivated to commit unethical acts such as destruction of life, taking what is not given by the owner, indulging in sexual misconduct, telling lies and taking intoxicant things.

These wrong actions are to be refrained for men. The opposite of these actions called Kusalamula are to be practiced or followed for Buddhist as a training of morality (silasikkha). By practicing morality, we must attempt to control our speech and physical actions.

When we have purified our respective rules and precepts, we can undertake the meditation (Bhavana). It includes the two trainings of concentration (Samadhisikkha) and wisdom (Pannasikkha). The practice of meditation begins with concentration, which is the second division of the Noble Eightfold Path. This is the wholesome action of learning to take control of the mental process, to become master of one’s own mind. Three parts of the Path called working factors fall within the training: right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. They must be well developed; otherwise morality and wisdom cannot be fully perfected.

The third step is the higher training of wisdom (Pannasikkha). It is so important that the aim of the practice is its development. Wisdom dispels ignorance and gives one spontaneous insight. The insight born of wisdom enables one to realize the four Noble Truths and to see things as they really are, to put an end to sufferings and experience the bliss of Nibbana. So these higher trainings are practicable process as a part of proper education in modern society to be followed for men. (562 words)

“The word Buddha must has been used by the Buddha himself for him”, prove this statement.

The word “Buddha” is a special well-known name that has been used to denote a person who is self-enlightenment. It began with its application to Gotama. Gotama was born in Northern India, attained Enlightenment, taught the Truth (Dhamma), which he had realized and demised at the age of eighty. The Buddha means Awakened One because he is awakened to the truth.

In Paramatthajotika, it is mentioned that he is discoverer of the truth (bujjhita), thus he is enlightened (Buddha). He is the enlightener (bodheta) of the generation, thus he is enlightenment (Buddha). He is enlightened by omniscience, enlightened by seeing all, enlightened without being led by others, thus he is enlightened (Buddha).Buddha is not a name made by a mother or father. The name ‘Buddha’ which signifies final liberation is a realistic description of Enlightened One. He got his name ‘Buddha’ due to his ability.

After his Enlightenment, the Buddha could no longer be classified even as a manussa or an ordinary human being. He belonged to the buddhavamsa, a special race or species of enlightened beings, all of whom are Buddhas.

Now, we should find the proof whether this word has been used by the Buddha himself or not. In Dona Sutta of AN, the Brahmin Dona asked the Buddha, when seeing the auspicious symbols on his foo-tprint, whether he is a deva, or a gandabba or a yakkha, or a manussa. The Buddha said that he is neither a deva nor a gandabba nor a yakkha, nor a manussa. Know you that I am the Buddha (Buddhoti mam brahmana dharehiti). Again, in Sela sutta of MN, the Buddha told the Brahamin Sela (who came to examine the Buddha’s great characteristics): What is to be known is known by me, and to be developed is developed; what is to be got rid of has been got rid of – therefore, Brahman, am I awakened.

According to the Vinaya Mahavagga, it is reported that soon after his attainment of Buddhahood, he proclaims to Upaka who he meet on his way to meet the five bhikkhus at Isipatana thus: ‘I am the one who is worthy of being revered in the world; I am the supreme teacher; I am the only one who has attained the most perfect enlightenment’ (Ekomhi sammasambuddho). Besides the Buddha mentions in Bodhirajakumara Sutta of MN that he has no teacher (na me Acariyo atthi). It means that he is the Self-Enlightened One (Sammasambuddha).

In the AN, the Buddha said to monks: Monks, there is one whose birth into the world is for the welfare of many folk,;;;; who is that one person? It is a Tathagat who is Arahant, a fully enlightened one, Sammasambuddha. He used the word "Sammasambuddha" to indicate himself.

In SN, it is generally stated that the Buddha called himself as“the Accomplished One (TathAgata), the Worthy One (Arahanta), the Fully Enlightened One (Sammasambuddha), the creator of the unarisen way, the knower of the way. The title used by his disciples is BhagavA, “the Blessed One”. Others spoke of him as Gotama or SAkyamuni. The word Gotama is not a personal name, but the name of his clan (gotta).

Many other laudatory epithets have been attributed to the Buddha by pious Buddhists. He is a physician, self-luminous, Lord of the universe, king of kings, peerless, all-beholder, sinless, light-giver, superior to all beings, and god of gods, etc.

So we can conclude that the name of Buddha was used by the Buddha himself on account of his perfect qualities. (583 Words)

Write an account of the Brahmanical system of education as it existed in 6^th century BC.

There were two main systems of education in ancient India in 6^th century BC, namely, the Brahmanical system of education and non-Brahmanical system of education. The Brahmanical system was based on the well-known four Vedas. Therefore, it was known as the Vedic system of education. The main function of Veda was to offer sacrifice to please the God they believed in. The sacrifice was offered by a special caste selected for that purpose. No one else could perform sacrifice for others. Therefore, this system was a monopoly of the Brahmans. Beside this, the Brahmans also restricted the education for the people in social aspects.

The ancient code known as the Laws of Manu prescribes the behavior and social obligations that each of the four social classes must follow to live in accordance with Dharma, the natural and moral order of the world. The code leads everybody from birth to death, offering guidance on such issues as marriage, hospitality, dietary restrictions and religious duties. There were two important areas relevant to education. The first one is called cast system with their functions and the other one is the duties of life span.

At that time, the caste system was related to the education. The Brahmans promulgated and rigidly observed the caste system with their own duties. According to Brahmanical system of education, the four major castes and their functions are as follows:

Brahman (The priest)- teaching, learning, offering sacrifice for their own sake, offering sacrifice for others, the practice of charity, receiving the offering.

Ksatriya( the ruler)- Protection of the country, the practice of charity, to offer sacrifice, learning only relevant subjects, to live the life of a discipline.

Vaisya (the traders) - rearing of animals, performance of charity, performance of sacrifice, learning, trade and agriculture.

Sudra (the labors or servants) - to serve the three upper castes without being jealousy.

From the above function of different castes, education was open only to the first three castes. The education for the Kastriya and Vaisya was limited to study the relevant subjects only. People who belong to the lowest casts never had a chance to receive any education under the principle of Brahmans.

In order to raise the standard of ethics and morality, the Brahmans introduced another institution called the Varnasrama-dharma. One had to naturally follow one by one. The life span of an individual was divided into four stages in it.

The first stage- a child at the age of eight years had to commence the study of the Veda under a teacher and during this period of study he had to observe strict celibacy.

The second stage- after completing his studentship, he enters the stage of a household where he has to perform all the duties of a householder such as bringing up children, performing the five daily sacrifices, accumulation of wealth and so on.

The third stage-when he becomes old, he enters the stage of forest dweller and devotes hid life to prayer and sacrifice.

The fourth stage-this is the last stage which he makes himself detached from all worldly things and fully devotes himself to a life of meditation.

Of them, the stage of household was considered as the most important. The Brahmanical system of education was a lay education. Brahmans tried to keep their power and rights under their education. Therefore, the Brahmanical system of education in the 6^th century BC was not open to all. It was restricted and limited. (574 words)

"It is accepted that ethics should constitute as a part of proper education". Examine the way of ethics in Buddhist theory of education.

We can find many highly educated people with a long tail of letters after their names. But they try to harm others and disturb their peace and harmony. They apply their education to destroy others and the peace of the world as ethics does not constitute in their education. Everyone agrees that we should avoid actions that are harmful and perform those that are beneficial. Some produce narrow, sectarian definitions that are acceptable to some but unacceptable to others. Instead of such narrow interpretations, the Buddha offered a universal definition of ethics to lead a virtuous life.

When we examine the way of ethics in Buddhist education, we can find Carittasila and Varittasila. Caritta sila means abiding by the rules of conduct and performing one's duties and responsibilities. In Singalovada Sutta, the Buddha describes the rules of conduct or duties for sons and daughters, for parents, for pupils, for teachers, etc.

At the same time, Buddhists observe Pancacila, and occasionally Ajivatthamakasila, Uposathasila, etc which belong to Varittasila. It means abstinence from evil conduct such as committing immoral action (Duccarita). The theory of Buddhist ethics finds its practical expression in the various precepts. The fundamental ethics laid down for the people is to observe the five moral precepts (Pancasila)-abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and taking any intoxicants. This is the basic code of moral practice for all Buddhists.

Moreover, we can find ten kinds of moral actions called Kusalakammapatha. They are also divided into three groups on the basis of three modes of performance.

Three kinds of bodily conduct-Panatipata virati-avoidance of killing; Adinnadana virati-avoidance of stealing; Kamesumicchacara virati-avoidance of sexual misconduct and misuse of the senses.

Four kinds of verbal good conduct-Musavada virati-avoidance of lying; Pusunavaca virati-avoidance of slandering; Pharusavaca virati-avoidance of harsh speech; Samphappalapavaca virati-avoidance of vain talk.

Three kinds of mental good conduct-Anabhijjha-avoidance of planning to get others' properties unlawfully; Avyapada-good will or avoidance of planning to destroy others' lives and properties; Sammadithi-right view which believes in Kamma and its result.

We cannot find any action that harms others, that disturbs their peace and harmony in it. By practicing these Buddhist ethics, one can become a good citizen and cause no harm to others as well as to oneself. They give rise to wholesome deeds which will produce wholesome result such as blissful existence in blissful abodes. Buddhist ethics helps others, contributes to their peace and harmony. It is a pious and wholesome action. It also recognizes the objectivity of moral values.

The Buddha preached the discourses all his life for the purification of beings. He appeared to teach the world. His education is Samsara long process. It consists of the threefold training of morality, concentration and wisdom. The training of morality is the first stage of the Noble Eightfold Path. It is also the foundation of meditation on which the superstructure of mental concentration and wisdom must be built.

To undertake moral training, one must cultivate the three constituents of the Noble Eightfold Path. Right speech-abstaining from lying, slandering, harsh speech and vain talk;

Right action-abstaining from killing, stealing and sexual misconduct; Right livelihood-abstaining from a livelihood connected with immoral speech and immoral action.

We can find the significance of Buddhist ethics in the training of morality. Buddhist ethics makes its principle both useful and acceptable to the modern world. It can be summarized in three simple principles-'To avoid evil; to do good; to purify the mind.' This is the teaching given by all the Buddhas.

Indians in ancient India tried to realize the four well-known ideas known as Purusha. What would be Buddhist attitude to them?

In India, there were a large number of religious and philosophical teachings. To explain them, ancient Indians introduced the human ideal known as 'Purusha' in Indian term. It can be studied in four aspects dealing with human life. They have classified all the things we seek in the world into four broad categories: kama, artha, dharma, and moksha. Dharma, in the sense of duty or desire to do right, occupies a central role in regulating artha and kama and promoting moksha. On account of dharma’s centrality, the goals of human life are often listed in the following order: dharma, artha, kama and moksha.

In this context, dharma means virtue or good conduct. Dharma includes striving for righteousness and virtue. For instance, under Brahmanism, there is a list of virtue. A good follower of Brahmanism has to observe it. But that list will not be acceptable for Buddhism. One example is a good Brahmin has to perform self sacrifice in his life. He has to employ a leading Brahmin for that.

But a Buddhist would not follow that advice. Buddhists are following their own Dharma. He undertakes to observe well the precept of abstaining from killing any living being. Now we see Buddhists follow a certain ideal.

Artha includes the pursuit of material well-being, wealth, and power. Indian thought has paid much attention to the problem of wealth. But some religious teachers, as they were bent on spiritual advancement, did not pay much attention to wealth. When we consider the four ways, there are some conceptions which pay much attention to wealth how to earn and use it. There were some religions which pay much attention to spiritual aspect of life. To oppose to the Vedic thinking, as well as spiritual aspect of life, there was a group of thinkers who emphasize the significant of wealth. Therefore, Materialist emphasizes the ideal of Artha.

Buddhism maintains the significant of this. Buddhists try to attain Nibbana, liberation from all sufferings, based on wealth because the Buddha himself started fulfilling the perfection of charity giving up the accumulation of wealth (Artha) to become Buddha.

Kama includes the pleasure of the senses, both aesthetic pleasures and sensual and sexual pleasure. Indian thought has equally paid attention to family life (sex life). Some religions emphasizes Kama or pleasure in various ways. They believe that this present life is the indication to the next life. Therefore, they pay attention to the success of this present life. Indian materialists maintain that man should enjoy pleasure. For that, he must earn wealth. They think for laypeople only two ideals (Artha and Kama) were the most important things.

Buddhists also believe in Kama and its result. Buddhists sometimes use the word 'Cetana' instead of 'Kama'. There are three kinds of actions (kama) in Buddhism, namely, bodily action, verbal action and mental action.

Moksha describes desire for liberation from the chain of lives. The first three goals pertain to the world we know, whereas moksha involves freedom from the world and from desires for kama, artha, and dharma. Attaining moksha is an extraordinary goal, which only some people specifically seek. Moksha, in Hinduism, is the liberation from the cycle of reincarnation and from Maya (the illusory appearance of this world). Moksha is a Sanskrit word meaning "liberation.

In Buddhism, the equivalent is enlightenment which can be attained by practicing insight meditation based on the charity and morality. (587 words)

Buddhist Art and Architecture in Sri Lanka

Significant of Stupa

Stupa means mound built by the religious people. The term “Stupa” was used by Hindism, Jainism, Buddhism and so on. In Vedic literature, we can find the two stupas by the name of Agni stupa and Herarya stupa. Even the Buddha created the stupas when Ven Sariputta and Ven Moggalana died.

In Mahaparinibbanasutta of MN, the Buddha said his followers to build a stupa after he passed away so that people can go there and do the same practice. At the result of that, they can go to heaven after their death according to the Theravada Buddhism. But the Buddha never said that bodily remain to be deposited in that particular stupa. According to this sutta, the Buddhists built the stupas and enshrined relics in the stupa. This is historical points of stupa.

In Cattukkanipata of AN, the Buddha himself says that there are 4 persons who should be built the stupa in the world. They are Sammasambuddha, Paccekabuddha, Arahat and a universal monarch.

In Mahaparinibbanasutta of DN, the Buddha said to Ananda “Ananda! After I passed away, Dhamma and Vinaya will be your teacher on behalf of me”.

In Sri Lanka, there are 3 objects of worship. They are (1) Saririka- Stupa, (2) Paribhogika- Bo-tree and (3) Uddissaka- Buddha’s images. Stupa is the highest object of worship in Buddhist countries because it contains the parts of body of the Buddha.

With With reference to this body of the Buddha, we can divide into 2 ways. They are Rupakaya and Dhammakaya. Rupakaya is the mortal body of the historical Buddha. Dhammakaya is the laws preached by Buddha. Of them, Theravadin worship the Rupakaya but Mahayanist worship the Dhammakaya.

There are 4 kinds of Stupa. They are Dhatuceti, Dhammaceti, Uddisakaceti andParibhogikaceti.

According to the Theravada tradition, the bodily remains are a kind of object representing the living Buddha. BG stated that if bodily remains of the Buddha are in somewhere, the Buddha is at there. ( Dhatusu thitasu Buddha thitanama hoti). And then, he also said that there are no difference between Dhammakaya and the Buddha (Dhammakayoti tathagatasseva adhivacanam).

According to the Mahayana tradition, stupa is an enormous building to accommodate Dhammakaya, which is called, the real Buddha. They never enshrine any bodily remains of the historical Buddha because those are not to be Buddha. And they rejected those bodily remains as Buddha and accepted the Dhammakaya, which have Paticcasamuppada or 84thousands Dhammakhanda as Buddha. Dhammakaya is the object of worship in the stupa. So, what is Mahayana stupa is that Dhammakaya which has nothing to do with death, decay and birth. They believed that they can go to Nibbana by worshipping this stupa of Dhammakaya after death.

Therefore, the Buddha could be called as Dhammabuta Buddha. It is correct interpretation according to the Theravada and Mahayana traditions.

With reference to stupa, especially,Mahayana’s stupas can not be called as funeral type, and they are also not funeral monuments.

Actually, stupa is a building in which the Buddha lives. (500-words)

Iconography

After the Buddha’s death, the images were popularly venerated by Buddhists in place of the Buddha. The Buddha images developed through the characteristics of the Mahapurisa or super human being.

Iconography is the study and interpretation of the symbols and images used conventionally in a genre of painting and sculpturing. It is particularly important in the study of religious images and paintings. Buddhist iconography consists of eight subjects to study Buddha images. They are: (1)The characteristics of the body; (2)Poses; (3)Mudara; (4)Asana; (5)Costume; (6)Ornaments; (7)Symbols; (8)Vahanas.

The characteristics of Buddha are 32 bodily major marks, 80 bodily minor marks, 5 kinds of rays illuminated from the body of Buddha and 108 auspicious symbols on the footprint.

Poses can be divided into four types: standing image, seated image, recumbent image and walking image. The first three poses are very popular in SL. Standing Buddha image contains three kinds of poses: (1) Samabhana- erect just like Avukana Buddha; (2) Abhana- slightly bend just like the standing Buddha at Galvihara and (3) Tribhana- slightly back just like Tivanka image found in Polonaruva.

Mudara express the attitude of the images with a gesture of hands and legs in both sitting and standing positions. There are many kinds of Mudara. Some are as follows:

Abhaya- a posture which grants absence of fear; Vitarka: argument gesture; Kataka- the holding of something or his robe; Varada- a gesture of granting desire; Bhumiphassa- the style of telling his perfections pointing the earth; Dhammacakka- a posture of turning the wheel of the Dhamma; Dhyana- a posture of mesitation or contemplation; Avadana- paying attention to something; Pratigrahana- the manner of receiving cakes and drinking water from the two marchants; Vajrahumkara- a gesture wrist crossed at breast, holding vajra and ghanta.

Asana is seat or pedestal or the position of the legs. There are many kinds of Asana. Among them, Vajrasana is the seated Buddha image, crossed legs commonly found in SL. Those who practice the Yoga meditation use this seated posture (Vajrasana) found in Abhayagiri site. Bhadrasana rendering as the modern style of sitting, is in the less of common sitting of Buddha, both legs are pendulous. Sihasana is the lion throne. The Buddha is depicted as sitting on it when he preaches his first sermon. It symbolizes the expression of the greatness of the Buddha. Asana sometimes means the pedestal on which the statues are placed. The lotus pedestal could be seen under the Avukana Buddha image.

Costume: Three kinds of robe: upper robe, lower robe and double robe are the costumes of the Buddha.

Ornament: Normally Buddha image have no ornament but we can find the ornaments of king decorated in many kinds of gems in some Buddha images (Mahamyatmuni) found in Myanmar. According to Fa-Hian, he had seen a Buddha image with pearl on the head but there is no literal evidence to prove that. Mahayana tradition has two symbols of their Dhyani Buddha images, called Vajira(diamond) and Ghanta(bell). These symbols are connected with Vajrahumkara Mudara and the body of bliss (Sambhogakaya) found in Usanisa in SL.

Vahana or mount: There is no Vahana (mount) in SL but in Mahayana tradition. There are five kinds of Dhyana Buddhas with mounts or Vahana used with animals such as elephant, horse, lion, peacock and so on. That came from the influence of Hindunism. (557 words)

Sigiriya Painting

Sigiriya is situated in Matale district, and 638 metres in heigh.Sigriya itself is quite similar to a lion sprswling on the ground and there was a lion-figure at the entrance of the palace.Therefore it is named as Sigiriya.

In the fith century AD, Sigiriya became the seat of the administration of king Kassapa for 18 years.After him ,it became as Abayagiri vihara.Before king Kassapa,it was a cave of monastery.There were painting galleries on weatern face of Sigieiya rock.The colours used for paintings are red,yellow,blue and black.The background of the painting is similar to western horizon at sunset.We can see the light of the sun and the darkness on the cloud. Originally, there were 500 female pictures. Today, there are only 21 pictures.There are many types of ladies.Some of them are in pairs, some,singles.They are cut off below the waist by the clouds.They are wearing jewelleries.They have head dresses.Some of them are golden, dark coloured and naked above the waist.Some ladies wear waist bands.Some ladies hold flowers and flowr-trays.Some ladies hold lotus and some, musical instruments.

Regarding to these paitings,there are various views among the scholars. (1)Some scholars believe that these ladies are human beings and they are going to worship Buddha image at vihara but some said they are going to perform a drama.

(2)H.C.P.Bell suggested that the fair ladies represented royalty who accompanied by their dark skinned attendants.

(3)Koomaraswamy identified the subject of these paintings as celestial women,with their attendants.

(4)S. Paranavitana said that the ladies could be taken as personification of cloud and lightning,the dark figures were cloud demsels and fair skinned females were

lightning princesses.

(5)A German scholar said that these painting represtented the goddess Tara who is consort of Bhodhisatta Avalokitesvara in Mahayana tradition.

Therefore, these frescoes have been the subjects of many controversies about their identity and their meaning.

Some scholars believe that the paintings at Sigiriya and at Ajanta cave in India must have been created by same school.But it is imposible because they had compared only the colour.Actually Sigiriya paintings are different from Ajanta cave.

With reference to these paintings there are different datings.Some scholars said that thse paintings must have been dome by King Kassapa. But it can be dated from the middle of 7^th century AD and beginning of 8^th century AD.accoring to the style of the script.In fact, the monks of Abayagiri are responsiblefor these paintings.Some people pointed out these ladies must be the queen and the servants of King Kassapa.

Regarding to five hundred pictures,there is a story of Nanda in the canon.The Buddha took Nanda who was in love with Janapadakalayani to heaven.After showing 500 deities,the Buddha said Nanda”If you meditate carefully,I will give you these 500 deities”.Therefore Nanda meditate and became an Arahat.This is the background of making 500 pictures. Moreover in the Heaven each Deva has 500 deities and it is said that these paintings were made only 500 because of the influent of these stories.

In conclusion, paintings at Sigiriya are very acttractive arts for every one who visit there and so graceful.Therefore these paintings became one of the facts of the famous Sigiriya around the world.As result, Sigiriya is considered as 8^th wonder the world by UNESCO. (555)

The Bronze Culture of Sri Lanka

The earliest Buddha images were made of wood, clay or stone. It became customary to cast images in bronze and precious metals. The earliest literary reference of metal images in SL contains in the Mahavamsa and refers to a golden image of the Buddha among the contents of the relic-chamber of the Mahathupa during the reign of Dutthagamani (B.C. 161-173). Archaeological evidence cannot confirm the existence of Buddha images prior to about the 2^nd or 3^rd AD.

According to the ancient chronicles, some of the Buddha images were cast in solid gold. King Upatissa 1 (365-406) is credited with making of a golden image to free the island from the harmful effects of a famine and plague. A large number of images, mostly cast in bronze and small size, have been discovered in SL.

There is no concrete evidence to prove a precise dating of the earliest bronze Buddha image in SL. The technique of casting had been introduced from India at an early date. The majority of ancient bronze sculptures are representations of Buddha seated in meditation (Samadhi) and depicted in Virasana with the right leg placed upon the left leg with only the sole of the right foot visible.

Preaching Buddha (Seated posture), ungilt bronze with hollow cast, lat Anuradapura period(AP), 6^th c AD, discovered in the town of Badulla is not only one of the earliest cast images of SL but one of the largest. Buddha is seated in Virasana and displays the Vitarka mudra with right hand and Kataka mudra with the left.

Three seated bronze Samadhi Buddhas were discovered at single temple of Tiriyaya in 1963, ungilt bronzes with hollow cast and other two in solid, lat AP., 8^th c AD, and belonging to Mahavihara School. Buddhas are seated in Virasana and display the Dhyana mudra, the garments of two images are with folds, whereas the robe of other image is rendered plain.

Standing SL bronze Buddhas are distinguished by their identical mudras, Abhaya with the right hand and hold the edge of the robe with left hand in Ahvana mudra.

Standing Buddha, gilt bronze with solid cast, lat A.P. 750-850 AD, height 66cm, discovered in Veragalavihara, is fully upright and raises the right hand in the Abhaya mudra which indicates fearlessness, protection and reassurance. The hand holds the edge of the robe in Ahvana mudra. The gaze of this image is fully directed at the on looker.

Mahayana Images in Bronze

The literary and archaeological evidence indicated that Mahayana philosophy was quite popular in SL during late AP. The important evidence of the extent is represented by the sculptures. An effort to strengthen Buddhism by King Parakkamabahu 1, Mahayana tradition lost from Sinhalese Buddhism.

Avalokitesvra, gilt bronze with solid cast, late AP 8-9^th c AD, belonging to Mahayana tradition, discovered in Veragala vihara, is the most magnificent bronze Bodisattva in SL, in a combination of Lalitasana and Rajalilasana. The eyes are inlaid with rock-crystals and Jatamakuta is inlaid with precious stones.

The Hindu pantheon mainly consists of Brahma, Visnu and Siva embodying the creative, preservative and destructive energies of the gods. In Polonnaruva, the Hindu temples were all dedicated to Siva and Visnu.

Siva Nataraja, bronze with solid cast, Polonnaruva period 11-12^th c AD, is dancing figure and fixes to lotus pedestal. It is four-armed and considered as the destroying principle. (557 words)

Typological and Decorative Development of Moonstone

Moonstone is a semi circular slab in the shape of a half moon placed at the entrance to the ancient buildings. It signifies dignity and beauty. It has been found in Sri Lanka from the very early times such as the Anuradhapura period and referred to as ‘Sandakadapahana’ in Sinhala. According to archeological evidence, there are three aspects, namely, original form, typological stage and decorative stage.

It is found in Vinaya as Patika. BG rendered it as half moon shape stone slab, placed at the entrance to a flight of steps. According to the proportion of entrances, the Patikas have been found in different sizes.

The moonstone in SL had been developed from the rectangular stone slab to half moon. There are four stages in typological development of Moonstone. At the very beginning, the sculptors had designed the piece of stone by cutting the two corners. The two ends of the Patika were partly shaped. At the second stage they selected more widely and cut completely its two edges of corner. At this stage, artists, not satisfied with their attempt, had used a much border stone and shaped it further. At the third stage, it was differently shaped from the first and second stage. At the final stage, it looks like a half moon. It is called semi circular stone slab in a shape of half moon, Addhacanda pasana.

Then we can see how typological development of rectangular stone slab transformed into a decorative moonstone. Having looked at the archeological evidence, we could find out the origin and decorative development of moonstone.

In SL, moonstone was later developed by SL artists as they decorated it in an attractive way. Selecting some geometrical lines to decorate it, they introduced some formal decorative elements to the rectangular stone slab. They later gradually introduce new elements, four elements as well as floral elements. The first floral element was the half lotus.

There are several stages in the evolution of decorative moonstone. In the center is a conventional half lotus. It is enclosed by concentric bands. They proceed outwards and are decorated respectively with a procession of geese, an intricate foliage design, a procession of four animals such as elephant, horse, lion and bull and an outermost band of cobra-hood or flame like motif. These are decorative elements found in most developed moonstone in SL.

The motifs of moonstone give rise to different interpretations among scholars. Prof. S. Paranavitana said it represents the Samsara or Bhavacakka and each motif individually has own interpretations. The outermost cobra-hood represents the three defilements: Raga, Dosa and Moha. The four animals represent the four suffering of birth, old age, sickness and death. The small creeper design represents craving. The row of swans represents the renunciation. The fully blooming lotus represents the pure abodes, Suddhavasa. But D. T Devendra refuses that the lotus symbolizes the washing of one’s feet before entering a religious place. Anyhow, all the elements selected for the moonstone can be regarded as decorative elements, which are chiefly associated with Buddhism.

{Buddhists pay due respect to their religious symbols without treading on them. It is impossible to identify these elements with holy Buddhist terms. Therefore, I think moonstones were decorated just to show only its beauty and their handicraft.}

From the facts mentioned above, it cam be clearly seen that the earliest moonstones had been rectangular stones and they gradually changed to various forms which we can see the four stages of typological and decorative development of moonstone. (582- 38 words)

Sigiriya Paintings

Sigiriya is situated in Inamaluva Korale, Matale district and 200 meters height. Sigiriya crag itself is quite similar to a lion sprawling on the ground. There was a lion-figure at the entrance of the palace complex. Therefore, it was named as Sigiriya.

At about 3^rd BC, people were prepared the caves for the monks. In 5^th AD, Sigiriya became the seat of the administration of King Kassapa for 18 years. After him, it became Abhayagiri Vihara. There are painting galleries above the mirror wall at western part of Sigiriya rock. The background of the paintings is similar to the western horizon at sunset. We can see the light of sun and the darkness on the clouds.

Technically paintings are identified by Fresco and Tempera. The colors used for them are red, yellow, blue and black. Some scholars believe that style of paintings at Sigiriya and Ajanta cave in India are the same school, comparing only the colours with each other. It is imposible because Sigiriya paintings are scientifically different from Ajanta cave. So these are local paintings.

Originally there were 500 female pictures. Today there remain 21 pictures only in different types. Some of them are in pair, others single. They are cut off below the waist by the clouds. They are wearing jewelleries. They have elaborate head-dresses. Some of them are golden-colored and some dark-colored, naked above the waist. Some ladies wear waist band and breast belt. Some ladies hold lotus and some are looking at them. Some hold flowers and flower-trays. Some ladies hold musical instruments.

Coming from the clouds indicates as Apassaras, heaven ladies who are representative of the stars (female) waiting for the moon (male). Most people accept them as Apassara and believe that they are going to worship the Buddha image at temple. Some said they are going for the performance of drama or Linga puja.

Some scholars interpret these ladies are human beings. These paintings must be done by king Kassapa and believe that these ladies golden and dark coloured must be the queen and the servants of King Kassapa. It is not possible because there are different-coloured ladies in the society even today. In fact, the monks of Abhayagiri School are responsible for paintings because they can be dated from the middle of 7^th AD and beginning of 8^th AD, according to the style of script.

Regarding 500 female pictures, there is a story about Nanda who loves Janapadakalyani. The Buddha took him to the heaven. After showing Apassaras, the Buddha said, ‘If you meditate carefully, I will give you these 500 Apassaras’. Therefore, Nanda meditated and became an Arahant. Moreover, in the heaven each deva has 500 Apassaras.

In my opinion, they all are attendants of Subrahma Deva and entertained sprinkling him with flowers and singing songs. At that moment they were cast into the hell. This story would be quite popular among the monks and people. The monks then there narrated that story and depicting it on the wall to show the sensual pleasure of Apassaras and finally the apprehension from that story. This story can be read in Subrahma sutta of SN and its commentary. Therefore, it can be said that paintings were made only 500 because of the influence of these stories.

In conclusion, paintings at Sigiriya are very attractive to everyone who visits there and so graceful. Therefore, Sigiriya paintings become one of the facts of Sigiriya’s fame around the world. As a result, Sigiriya is considered as the 8^th wonder of the world by UNESCO. (588 words)

Proportion and Measurement of Buddha Image

The number of human Buddhas has been numerous in the history of Buddhism. After the Buddha’s death, the images were popularly venerated by Buddhists in place of the Buddha. The Buddha image developed through the characteristics of the Mahapurisa or super human being. Some legends say that the Buddha images were made during his life time. In the Pali commentaries there are many references to show that Buddha images were made before the second century AD. The original Buddha image is likely to be somewhere around in the 3^rd century BC.

The original Buddha images were made by artists in Mathura and Gandhara, India around 1^st AD. The Buddha images produced in these regions were basically different in style. The Mahavamsa refers to a particular stone Buddha image made by king Devanam piyatissa in the 3^rd century BC. King Dutthagamani is reported to have enshrined a statue of the seated Buddha in the relic chamber of Mahathupa at Anuradhapura.

Iconometry is the art of proportion or measurements that a sculptor or a painter has to adopt when sculpturing or painting a human or any other figure. In India there is a description dealing with metrology known as Talamana. Tala is a large unit of moeasurement which is still in use. The extent of tala is equal to the length or width of the face which is that of the palm from the wrist to the end of the tip of middle finger. The second long unit called the angula is approximately 1/12^th of the tala. The small unit is called the yava and it is 1/8^th of an angula. In Indian iconomentry the tala, angula and yava are the most important units of measurement as far as painting and sculptures are concerned. (1 tala = 12 angulas, 1 angula = 8 yavas; 1 tala = 96 yavas)

In this tala system, there are 14 types of proportion used in the Buddha image like ekatala, dvitala, tritala, catutala … until catudasatala. Catudasatala had been used in south India and SL. India and Tibet had used Navatala proportion for the measurement of standing Buddha images. They are as follows:

Vertical measurement of the major parts of the body

Navatala Proportion Uttamadasatala proportion

Parts of the body Tala Angula Parts of the body Angula Yava

Usnisa 1

Skull 3

Face 1 12 Face 13 4

Neck 1/3 4 Neck 3 4

Neck to chest 1 12 Neck to chest 13 4

Chest to navel 1 12 chest to navel 13 4

Navel to the foot of Navel to the foot of

The penis 1 12 the penis 13 4

Thigh 2 24 Thigh 27

Knee 1/3 4 Knee 4 4

Shin 2 24 Shin 27

Heel 1/3 4 Heel 4

Total 9-talas 108-angulas 21-angulas 24-yava

Total 124-angulas

These measurements have been followed from the Anuradhapura to Polonnaruva period especially for Avukana Buddha image. Astatala (12x8) system is used by artist for ordinary man. For Buddha images, Navatala had been used because Buddha was a super human being (Mahapuirsa). After 13^th century BC, SL artist started to use Uttamadasatala proportion and that has been used up to present time. Navatala can be divided into three types. Uttama Navatala 12 x 9 + 4 = 112,

Madhyama Navatala 12 x 9 = 108, Adhama Navatala 12 x 9 – 4 = 104 (556 words)

The concept of Bodhisatta in Theravada Buddhism

According to Pali commentaries, the word ‘Bodhisatta’ is composed of bodhi and satta. BG interpreted that the word bodhi’ means bodhirukkha, magga, sabbannutanana, nibbana in his commentaries. Satta means a being who is wise, qualified, a being who is on the way to awakening, a being who is worthy of attaining Sammasambodhi and a being who is inclined to Bodhi.

There are three kinds of Bodhisatta, namely, Mahabodhisatta, Paccekabodhisatta and Savakabodhisatta. Buddhavamsa A says that ascetic Sumedha can realize Nibbana in this very life in front of Dipankara Buddha if he wants to be so. Bodhisatta initially fulfilled ten perfections to attain Buddhahood for four asankheyya and a hundred thousand kappas according to Theravada tradition, but in Mahayana tradition, only six paramitas.

To become a Buddha, Bodhisatta has to start his career in front of the Buddha with making a resolution (Abhinihara), which is basic requirement for declaration. Before declaration, an aspirant has to be endowed with the following eight conditions.

Manussatta- he should be a human being, Lingasampatti- he should be a male, Hetu- he should have a cause, Sattharadassana- aspire for buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha, Pabbajja- he should be an ascetic while making resolution, Gunasampatti- he should have quality to attain Pancabhinna, Adhikara- he should be endowed with ability to sacrifice even his own life for Buddha, Chandata- he should have a firm decision to follow Buddha’s method.

Suttanipata states eighteen inauspicious places, where Bodhisatta was never born, namely, as the blind, a deaf person, an insane, a crippled being, in the womb of slave, a woman, wrong viewer etc. Besides, commentaries state six intentions- Ajjhasaya for Bodhisatta: Nikkhamma Ajjhasaya- intention of giving up worldly pleasure, Paviveka A- intention of solitude, Alobha A- intention of generosity, Adosa A- intention of non-hatred, Amoha A- intention of non-delusion, Nissarana A- intention of overcoming Samsara.

Mahasihanada sutta states that Bodhisatta has to follow the four kinds of practice: as Tapassi- asceticism, Lukhasi- rough practice, Jegucchi- loathsome practice and Pavivitta- solitude but later he gives up these practices as they are not conducive to his enlightenment. Ariyapariyesana sutta states two kinds of search, Anariyapariyesana- ignoble search, Bodhisatta has the nature of birth, decay, death etc. and earning getting married etc, like other human beings. Ariyapariyasa- the noble search: having realized all these problems, he renounced the world and practiced meditation under Alara and Udaka.But he was not satisfied yet and finally he followed the middle way through which he attained his enlightenment.

Mahapadana sutta mentions the word ‘Dhammata’ that means the nature of Bodhisatta e.g. Bodhisatta descended from Tusita heaven and born in human world and his mother died after seven days of his birth etc. Acchariyaabbhutadhamma sutta mentions 32 advanced omens (Dvattinsapubbanimitta) at the time of the Bodhisatta’s birth like terrible earthquake, unseasonable fruits and flowers etc.

Cakkavattisihanada sutta of DN states 32 special characteristics (Dvattinsa mahapurisalakkhana) which belong to only man who will become universal monarch as lay life and a Buddha if he renounces the world and follows middle way.

Buddhavamsa states three reasons to become a Buddha; receiving a definite assurance (niyata byakarana), making resolution to become a Buddha, fulfilling ten perfections to attain Buddhahood. No one can achieve Buddhahood without fulfilling ten perfections. (540 words)