Buddhist Art and Architecture in Sri Lanka

Significant of Stupa

Stupa means mound built by the religious people. The term “Stupa” was used by Hindism, Jainism, Buddhism and so on. In Vedic literature, we can find the two stupas by the name of Agni stupa and Herarya stupa. Even the Buddha created the stupas when Ven Sariputta and Ven Moggalana died.

In Mahaparinibbanasutta of MN, the Buddha said his followers to build a stupa after he passed away so that people can go there and do the same practice. At the result of that, they can go to heaven after their death according to the Theravada Buddhism. But the Buddha never said that bodily remain to be deposited in that particular stupa. According to this sutta, the Buddhists built the stupas and enshrined relics in the stupa. This is historical points of stupa.

In Cattukkanipata of AN, the Buddha himself says that there are 4 persons who should be built the stupa in the world. They are Sammasambuddha, Paccekabuddha, Arahat and a universal monarch.

In Mahaparinibbanasutta of DN, the Buddha said to Ananda “Ananda! After I passed away, Dhamma and Vinaya will be your teacher on behalf of me”.

In Sri Lanka, there are 3 objects of worship. They are (1) Saririka- Stupa, (2) Paribhogika- Bo-tree and (3) Uddissaka- Buddha’s images. Stupa is the highest object of worship in Buddhist countries because it contains the parts of body of the Buddha.

With With reference to this body of the Buddha, we can divide into 2 ways. They are Rupakaya and Dhammakaya. Rupakaya is the mortal body of the historical Buddha. Dhammakaya is the laws preached by Buddha. Of them, Theravadin worship the Rupakaya but Mahayanist worship the Dhammakaya.

There are 4 kinds of Stupa. They are Dhatuceti, Dhammaceti, Uddisakaceti andParibhogikaceti.

According to the Theravada tradition, the bodily remains are a kind of object representing the living Buddha. BG stated that if bodily remains of the Buddha are in somewhere, the Buddha is at there. ( Dhatusu thitasu Buddha thitanama hoti). And then, he also said that there are no difference between Dhammakaya and the Buddha (Dhammakayoti tathagatasseva adhivacanam).

According to the Mahayana tradition, stupa is an enormous building to accommodate Dhammakaya, which is called, the real Buddha. They never enshrine any bodily remains of the historical Buddha because those are not to be Buddha. And they rejected those bodily remains as Buddha and accepted the Dhammakaya, which have Paticcasamuppada or 84thousands Dhammakhanda as Buddha. Dhammakaya is the object of worship in the stupa. So, what is Mahayana stupa is that Dhammakaya which has nothing to do with death, decay and birth. They believed that they can go to Nibbana by worshipping this stupa of Dhammakaya after death.

Therefore, the Buddha could be called as Dhammabuta Buddha. It is correct interpretation according to the Theravada and Mahayana traditions.

With reference to stupa, especially,Mahayana’s stupas can not be called as funeral type, and they are also not funeral monuments.

Actually, stupa is a building in which the Buddha lives. (500-words)

Iconography

After the Buddha’s death, the images were popularly venerated by Buddhists in place of the Buddha. The Buddha images developed through the characteristics of the Mahapurisa or super human being.

Iconography is the study and interpretation of the symbols and images used conventionally in a genre of painting and sculpturing. It is particularly important in the study of religious images and paintings. Buddhist iconography consists of eight subjects to study Buddha images. They are: (1)The characteristics of the body; (2)Poses; (3)Mudara; (4)Asana; (5)Costume; (6)Ornaments; (7)Symbols; (8)Vahanas.

The characteristics of Buddha are 32 bodily major marks, 80 bodily minor marks, 5 kinds of rays illuminated from the body of Buddha and 108 auspicious symbols on the footprint.

Poses can be divided into four types: standing image, seated image, recumbent image and walking image. The first three poses are very popular in SL. Standing Buddha image contains three kinds of poses: (1) Samabhana- erect just like Avukana Buddha; (2) Abhana- slightly bend just like the standing Buddha at Galvihara and (3) Tribhana- slightly back just like Tivanka image found in Polonaruva.

Mudara express the attitude of the images with a gesture of hands and legs in both sitting and standing positions. There are many kinds of Mudara. Some are as follows:

Abhaya- a posture which grants absence of fear; Vitarka: argument gesture; Kataka- the holding of something or his robe; Varada- a gesture of granting desire; Bhumiphassa- the style of telling his perfections pointing the earth; Dhammacakka- a posture of turning the wheel of the Dhamma; Dhyana- a posture of mesitation or contemplation; Avadana- paying attention to something; Pratigrahana- the manner of receiving cakes and drinking water from the two marchants; Vajrahumkara- a gesture wrist crossed at breast, holding vajra and ghanta.

Asana is seat or pedestal or the position of the legs. There are many kinds of Asana. Among them, Vajrasana is the seated Buddha image, crossed legs commonly found in SL. Those who practice the Yoga meditation use this seated posture (Vajrasana) found in Abhayagiri site. Bhadrasana rendering as the modern style of sitting, is in the less of common sitting of Buddha, both legs are pendulous. Sihasana is the lion throne. The Buddha is depicted as sitting on it when he preaches his first sermon. It symbolizes the expression of the greatness of the Buddha. Asana sometimes means the pedestal on which the statues are placed. The lotus pedestal could be seen under the Avukana Buddha image.

Costume: Three kinds of robe: upper robe, lower robe and double robe are the costumes of the Buddha.

Ornament: Normally Buddha image have no ornament but we can find the ornaments of king decorated in many kinds of gems in some Buddha images (Mahamyatmuni) found in Myanmar. According to Fa-Hian, he had seen a Buddha image with pearl on the head but there is no literal evidence to prove that. Mahayana tradition has two symbols of their Dhyani Buddha images, called Vajira(diamond) and Ghanta(bell). These symbols are connected with Vajrahumkara Mudara and the body of bliss (Sambhogakaya) found in Usanisa in SL.

Vahana or mount: There is no Vahana (mount) in SL but in Mahayana tradition. There are five kinds of Dhyana Buddhas with mounts or Vahana used with animals such as elephant, horse, lion, peacock and so on. That came from the influence of Hindunism. (557 words)

Sigiriya Painting

Sigiriya is situated in Matale district, and 638 metres in heigh.Sigriya itself is quite similar to a lion sprswling on the ground and there was a lion-figure at the entrance of the palace.Therefore it is named as Sigiriya.

In the fith century AD, Sigiriya became the seat of the administration of king Kassapa for 18 years.After him ,it became as Abayagiri vihara.Before king Kassapa,it was a cave of monastery.There were painting galleries on weatern face of Sigieiya rock.The colours used for paintings are red,yellow,blue and black.The background of the painting is similar to western horizon at sunset.We can see the light of the sun and the darkness on the cloud. Originally, there were 500 female pictures. Today, there are only 21 pictures.There are many types of ladies.Some of them are in pairs, some,singles.They are cut off below the waist by the clouds.They are wearing jewelleries.They have head dresses.Some of them are golden, dark coloured and naked above the waist.Some ladies wear waist bands.Some ladies hold flowers and flowr-trays.Some ladies hold lotus and some, musical instruments.

Regarding to these paitings,there are various views among the scholars. (1)Some scholars believe that these ladies are human beings and they are going to worship Buddha image at vihara but some said they are going to perform a drama.

(2)H.C.P.Bell suggested that the fair ladies represented royalty who accompanied by their dark skinned attendants.

(3)Koomaraswamy identified the subject of these paintings as celestial women,with their attendants.

(4)S. Paranavitana said that the ladies could be taken as personification of cloud and lightning,the dark figures were cloud demsels and fair skinned females were

lightning princesses.

(5)A German scholar said that these painting represtented the goddess Tara who is consort of Bhodhisatta Avalokitesvara in Mahayana tradition.

Therefore, these frescoes have been the subjects of many controversies about their identity and their meaning.

Some scholars believe that the paintings at Sigiriya and at Ajanta cave in India must have been created by same school.But it is imposible because they had compared only the colour.Actually Sigiriya paintings are different from Ajanta cave.

With reference to these paintings there are different datings.Some scholars said that thse paintings must have been dome by King Kassapa. But it can be dated from the middle of 7^th century AD and beginning of 8^th century AD.accoring to the style of the script.In fact, the monks of Abayagiri are responsiblefor these paintings.Some people pointed out these ladies must be the queen and the servants of King Kassapa.

Regarding to five hundred pictures,there is a story of Nanda in the canon.The Buddha took Nanda who was in love with Janapadakalayani to heaven.After showing 500 deities,the Buddha said Nanda”If you meditate carefully,I will give you these 500 deities”.Therefore Nanda meditate and became an Arahat.This is the background of making 500 pictures. Moreover in the Heaven each Deva has 500 deities and it is said that these paintings were made only 500 because of the influent of these stories.

In conclusion, paintings at Sigiriya are very acttractive arts for every one who visit there and so graceful.Therefore these paintings became one of the facts of the famous Sigiriya around the world.As result, Sigiriya is considered as 8^th wonder the world by UNESCO. (555)

The Bronze Culture of Sri Lanka

The earliest Buddha images were made of wood, clay or stone. It became customary to cast images in bronze and precious metals. The earliest literary reference of metal images in SL contains in the Mahavamsa and refers to a golden image of the Buddha among the contents of the relic-chamber of the Mahathupa during the reign of Dutthagamani (B.C. 161-173). Archaeological evidence cannot confirm the existence of Buddha images prior to about the 2^nd or 3^rd AD.

According to the ancient chronicles, some of the Buddha images were cast in solid gold. King Upatissa 1 (365-406) is credited with making of a golden image to free the island from the harmful effects of a famine and plague. A large number of images, mostly cast in bronze and small size, have been discovered in SL.

There is no concrete evidence to prove a precise dating of the earliest bronze Buddha image in SL. The technique of casting had been introduced from India at an early date. The majority of ancient bronze sculptures are representations of Buddha seated in meditation (Samadhi) and depicted in Virasana with the right leg placed upon the left leg with only the sole of the right foot visible.

Preaching Buddha (Seated posture), ungilt bronze with hollow cast, lat Anuradapura period(AP), 6^th c AD, discovered in the town of Badulla is not only one of the earliest cast images of SL but one of the largest. Buddha is seated in Virasana and displays the Vitarka mudra with right hand and Kataka mudra with the left.

Three seated bronze Samadhi Buddhas were discovered at single temple of Tiriyaya in 1963, ungilt bronzes with hollow cast and other two in solid, lat AP., 8^th c AD, and belonging to Mahavihara School. Buddhas are seated in Virasana and display the Dhyana mudra, the garments of two images are with folds, whereas the robe of other image is rendered plain.

Standing SL bronze Buddhas are distinguished by their identical mudras, Abhaya with the right hand and hold the edge of the robe with left hand in Ahvana mudra.

Standing Buddha, gilt bronze with solid cast, lat A.P. 750-850 AD, height 66cm, discovered in Veragalavihara, is fully upright and raises the right hand in the Abhaya mudra which indicates fearlessness, protection and reassurance. The hand holds the edge of the robe in Ahvana mudra. The gaze of this image is fully directed at the on looker.

Mahayana Images in Bronze

The literary and archaeological evidence indicated that Mahayana philosophy was quite popular in SL during late AP. The important evidence of the extent is represented by the sculptures. An effort to strengthen Buddhism by King Parakkamabahu 1, Mahayana tradition lost from Sinhalese Buddhism.

Avalokitesvra, gilt bronze with solid cast, late AP 8-9^th c AD, belonging to Mahayana tradition, discovered in Veragala vihara, is the most magnificent bronze Bodisattva in SL, in a combination of Lalitasana and Rajalilasana. The eyes are inlaid with rock-crystals and Jatamakuta is inlaid with precious stones.

The Hindu pantheon mainly consists of Brahma, Visnu and Siva embodying the creative, preservative and destructive energies of the gods. In Polonnaruva, the Hindu temples were all dedicated to Siva and Visnu.

Siva Nataraja, bronze with solid cast, Polonnaruva period 11-12^th c AD, is dancing figure and fixes to lotus pedestal. It is four-armed and considered as the destroying principle. (557 words)

Typological and Decorative Development of Moonstone

Moonstone is a semi circular slab in the shape of a half moon placed at the entrance to the ancient buildings. It signifies dignity and beauty. It has been found in Sri Lanka from the very early times such as the Anuradhapura period and referred to as ‘Sandakadapahana’ in Sinhala. According to archeological evidence, there are three aspects, namely, original form, typological stage and decorative stage.

It is found in Vinaya as Patika. BG rendered it as half moon shape stone slab, placed at the entrance to a flight of steps. According to the proportion of entrances, the Patikas have been found in different sizes.

The moonstone in SL had been developed from the rectangular stone slab to half moon. There are four stages in typological development of Moonstone. At the very beginning, the sculptors had designed the piece of stone by cutting the two corners. The two ends of the Patika were partly shaped. At the second stage they selected more widely and cut completely its two edges of corner. At this stage, artists, not satisfied with their attempt, had used a much border stone and shaped it further. At the third stage, it was differently shaped from the first and second stage. At the final stage, it looks like a half moon. It is called semi circular stone slab in a shape of half moon, Addhacanda pasana.

Then we can see how typological development of rectangular stone slab transformed into a decorative moonstone. Having looked at the archeological evidence, we could find out the origin and decorative development of moonstone.

In SL, moonstone was later developed by SL artists as they decorated it in an attractive way. Selecting some geometrical lines to decorate it, they introduced some formal decorative elements to the rectangular stone slab. They later gradually introduce new elements, four elements as well as floral elements. The first floral element was the half lotus.

There are several stages in the evolution of decorative moonstone. In the center is a conventional half lotus. It is enclosed by concentric bands. They proceed outwards and are decorated respectively with a procession of geese, an intricate foliage design, a procession of four animals such as elephant, horse, lion and bull and an outermost band of cobra-hood or flame like motif. These are decorative elements found in most developed moonstone in SL.

The motifs of moonstone give rise to different interpretations among scholars. Prof. S. Paranavitana said it represents the Samsara or Bhavacakka and each motif individually has own interpretations. The outermost cobra-hood represents the three defilements: Raga, Dosa and Moha. The four animals represent the four suffering of birth, old age, sickness and death. The small creeper design represents craving. The row of swans represents the renunciation. The fully blooming lotus represents the pure abodes, Suddhavasa. But D. T Devendra refuses that the lotus symbolizes the washing of one’s feet before entering a religious place. Anyhow, all the elements selected for the moonstone can be regarded as decorative elements, which are chiefly associated with Buddhism.

{Buddhists pay due respect to their religious symbols without treading on them. It is impossible to identify these elements with holy Buddhist terms. Therefore, I think moonstones were decorated just to show only its beauty and their handicraft.}

From the facts mentioned above, it cam be clearly seen that the earliest moonstones had been rectangular stones and they gradually changed to various forms which we can see the four stages of typological and decorative development of moonstone. (582- 38 words)

Sigiriya Paintings

Sigiriya is situated in Inamaluva Korale, Matale district and 200 meters height. Sigiriya crag itself is quite similar to a lion sprawling on the ground. There was a lion-figure at the entrance of the palace complex. Therefore, it was named as Sigiriya.

At about 3^rd BC, people were prepared the caves for the monks. In 5^th AD, Sigiriya became the seat of the administration of King Kassapa for 18 years. After him, it became Abhayagiri Vihara. There are painting galleries above the mirror wall at western part of Sigiriya rock. The background of the paintings is similar to the western horizon at sunset. We can see the light of sun and the darkness on the clouds.

Technically paintings are identified by Fresco and Tempera. The colors used for them are red, yellow, blue and black. Some scholars believe that style of paintings at Sigiriya and Ajanta cave in India are the same school, comparing only the colours with each other. It is imposible because Sigiriya paintings are scientifically different from Ajanta cave. So these are local paintings.

Originally there were 500 female pictures. Today there remain 21 pictures only in different types. Some of them are in pair, others single. They are cut off below the waist by the clouds. They are wearing jewelleries. They have elaborate head-dresses. Some of them are golden-colored and some dark-colored, naked above the waist. Some ladies wear waist band and breast belt. Some ladies hold lotus and some are looking at them. Some hold flowers and flower-trays. Some ladies hold musical instruments.

Coming from the clouds indicates as Apassaras, heaven ladies who are representative of the stars (female) waiting for the moon (male). Most people accept them as Apassara and believe that they are going to worship the Buddha image at temple. Some said they are going for the performance of drama or Linga puja.

Some scholars interpret these ladies are human beings. These paintings must be done by king Kassapa and believe that these ladies golden and dark coloured must be the queen and the servants of King Kassapa. It is not possible because there are different-coloured ladies in the society even today. In fact, the monks of Abhayagiri School are responsible for paintings because they can be dated from the middle of 7^th AD and beginning of 8^th AD, according to the style of script.

Regarding 500 female pictures, there is a story about Nanda who loves Janapadakalyani. The Buddha took him to the heaven. After showing Apassaras, the Buddha said, ‘If you meditate carefully, I will give you these 500 Apassaras’. Therefore, Nanda meditated and became an Arahant. Moreover, in the heaven each deva has 500 Apassaras.

In my opinion, they all are attendants of Subrahma Deva and entertained sprinkling him with flowers and singing songs. At that moment they were cast into the hell. This story would be quite popular among the monks and people. The monks then there narrated that story and depicting it on the wall to show the sensual pleasure of Apassaras and finally the apprehension from that story. This story can be read in Subrahma sutta of SN and its commentary. Therefore, it can be said that paintings were made only 500 because of the influence of these stories.

In conclusion, paintings at Sigiriya are very attractive to everyone who visits there and so graceful. Therefore, Sigiriya paintings become one of the facts of Sigiriya’s fame around the world. As a result, Sigiriya is considered as the 8^th wonder of the world by UNESCO. (588 words)

Proportion and Measurement of Buddha Image

The number of human Buddhas has been numerous in the history of Buddhism. After the Buddha’s death, the images were popularly venerated by Buddhists in place of the Buddha. The Buddha image developed through the characteristics of the Mahapurisa or super human being. Some legends say that the Buddha images were made during his life time. In the Pali commentaries there are many references to show that Buddha images were made before the second century AD. The original Buddha image is likely to be somewhere around in the 3^rd century BC.

The original Buddha images were made by artists in Mathura and Gandhara, India around 1^st AD. The Buddha images produced in these regions were basically different in style. The Mahavamsa refers to a particular stone Buddha image made by king Devanam piyatissa in the 3^rd century BC. King Dutthagamani is reported to have enshrined a statue of the seated Buddha in the relic chamber of Mahathupa at Anuradhapura.

Iconometry is the art of proportion or measurements that a sculptor or a painter has to adopt when sculpturing or painting a human or any other figure. In India there is a description dealing with metrology known as Talamana. Tala is a large unit of moeasurement which is still in use. The extent of tala is equal to the length or width of the face which is that of the palm from the wrist to the end of the tip of middle finger. The second long unit called the angula is approximately 1/12^th of the tala. The small unit is called the yava and it is 1/8^th of an angula. In Indian iconomentry the tala, angula and yava are the most important units of measurement as far as painting and sculptures are concerned. (1 tala = 12 angulas, 1 angula = 8 yavas; 1 tala = 96 yavas)

In this tala system, there are 14 types of proportion used in the Buddha image like ekatala, dvitala, tritala, catutala … until catudasatala. Catudasatala had been used in south India and SL. India and Tibet had used Navatala proportion for the measurement of standing Buddha images. They are as follows:

Vertical measurement of the major parts of the body

Navatala Proportion Uttamadasatala proportion

Parts of the body Tala Angula Parts of the body Angula Yava

Usnisa 1

Skull 3

Face 1 12 Face 13 4

Neck 1/3 4 Neck 3 4

Neck to chest 1 12 Neck to chest 13 4

Chest to navel 1 12 chest to navel 13 4

Navel to the foot of Navel to the foot of

The penis 1 12 the penis 13 4

Thigh 2 24 Thigh 27

Knee 1/3 4 Knee 4 4

Shin 2 24 Shin 27

Heel 1/3 4 Heel 4

Total 9-talas 108-angulas 21-angulas 24-yava

Total 124-angulas

These measurements have been followed from the Anuradhapura to Polonnaruva period especially for Avukana Buddha image. Astatala (12x8) system is used by artist for ordinary man. For Buddha images, Navatala had been used because Buddha was a super human being (Mahapuirsa). After 13^th century BC, SL artist started to use Uttamadasatala proportion and that has been used up to present time. Navatala can be divided into three types. Uttama Navatala 12 x 9 + 4 = 112,

Madhyama Navatala 12 x 9 = 108, Adhama Navatala 12 x 9 – 4 = 104 (556 words)

The concept of Bodhisatta in Theravada Buddhism

According to Pali commentaries, the word ‘Bodhisatta’ is composed of bodhi and satta. BG interpreted that the word bodhi’ means bodhirukkha, magga, sabbannutanana, nibbana in his commentaries. Satta means a being who is wise, qualified, a being who is on the way to awakening, a being who is worthy of attaining Sammasambodhi and a being who is inclined to Bodhi.

There are three kinds of Bodhisatta, namely, Mahabodhisatta, Paccekabodhisatta and Savakabodhisatta. Buddhavamsa A says that ascetic Sumedha can realize Nibbana in this very life in front of Dipankara Buddha if he wants to be so. Bodhisatta initially fulfilled ten perfections to attain Buddhahood for four asankheyya and a hundred thousand kappas according to Theravada tradition, but in Mahayana tradition, only six paramitas.

To become a Buddha, Bodhisatta has to start his career in front of the Buddha with making a resolution (Abhinihara), which is basic requirement for declaration. Before declaration, an aspirant has to be endowed with the following eight conditions.

Manussatta- he should be a human being, Lingasampatti- he should be a male, Hetu- he should have a cause, Sattharadassana- aspire for buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha, Pabbajja- he should be an ascetic while making resolution, Gunasampatti- he should have quality to attain Pancabhinna, Adhikara- he should be endowed with ability to sacrifice even his own life for Buddha, Chandata- he should have a firm decision to follow Buddha’s method.

Suttanipata states eighteen inauspicious places, where Bodhisatta was never born, namely, as the blind, a deaf person, an insane, a crippled being, in the womb of slave, a woman, wrong viewer etc. Besides, commentaries state six intentions- Ajjhasaya for Bodhisatta: Nikkhamma Ajjhasaya- intention of giving up worldly pleasure, Paviveka A- intention of solitude, Alobha A- intention of generosity, Adosa A- intention of non-hatred, Amoha A- intention of non-delusion, Nissarana A- intention of overcoming Samsara.

Mahasihanada sutta states that Bodhisatta has to follow the four kinds of practice: as Tapassi- asceticism, Lukhasi- rough practice, Jegucchi- loathsome practice and Pavivitta- solitude but later he gives up these practices as they are not conducive to his enlightenment. Ariyapariyesana sutta states two kinds of search, Anariyapariyesana- ignoble search, Bodhisatta has the nature of birth, decay, death etc. and earning getting married etc, like other human beings. Ariyapariyasa- the noble search: having realized all these problems, he renounced the world and practiced meditation under Alara and Udaka.But he was not satisfied yet and finally he followed the middle way through which he attained his enlightenment.

Mahapadana sutta mentions the word ‘Dhammata’ that means the nature of Bodhisatta e.g. Bodhisatta descended from Tusita heaven and born in human world and his mother died after seven days of his birth etc. Acchariyaabbhutadhamma sutta mentions 32 advanced omens (Dvattinsapubbanimitta) at the time of the Bodhisatta’s birth like terrible earthquake, unseasonable fruits and flowers etc.

Cakkavattisihanada sutta of DN states 32 special characteristics (Dvattinsa mahapurisalakkhana) which belong to only man who will become universal monarch as lay life and a Buddha if he renounces the world and follows middle way.

Buddhavamsa states three reasons to become a Buddha; receiving a definite assurance (niyata byakarana), making resolution to become a Buddha, fulfilling ten perfections to attain Buddhahood. No one can achieve Buddhahood without fulfilling ten perfections. (540 words)